2. AP Biology Lab Review

3. AP Biology BIG IDEA 1: EVOLUTION

4. AP Biology Lab 1: Artificial Selection  Concepts:  Natural selection = differential reproduction in a population  Populations change over time  evolution  Natural Selection vs. Artificial Selection

5. AP Biology Lab 1: Artificial Selection  Description:  Use Wisconsin Fast Plants to perform artificial selection  Identify traits and variations in traits  Cross-pollinate (top 10%) for selected trait  Collect data for 2 generations (P and F 1 )

6. AP Biology Sample Histogram of a Population

7. AP Biology Lab 1: Artificial Selection Analysis & Results:  Calculate mean, median, standard deviation, range  Are the 2 populations before and after selection (P and F 1 ) actually different?  Are the 2 sub-populations of F 1 (hairy vs. non- hairy) different?  Are the means statistically different?  A T-test could be used to determine if 2 sets of data are statistically different from each other

8. AP Biology Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg  Concepts:  Evolution = change in frequency of alleles in a population from generation to generation  Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium  Allele Frequencies (p + q = 1)  Genotypic Frequencies (p 2 +2pq+q 2 = 1)  Conditions: 1. large population 2. random mating 3. no mutations 4. no natural selection 5. no migration

9. AP Biology Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg  Description:  Generate mathematical models and computer simulations to see how a hypothetical gene pool changes from one generation to the next  Use Microsoft Excel spreadsheet  p = frequency of A allele  q = frequency of B allele

10. AP Biology Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg

11. AP Biology Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg  Setting up Excel spreadsheet

12. AP Biology Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg  Sample Results

13. AP Biology Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg Analysis & Results:  Null model: in the absence of random events that affect populations, allele frequencies (p,q) should be the same from generation to generation (H-W equilibrium)  Analyze genetic drift and the effect of selection on a given population  Manipulate parameters in model:  Population size, selection (fitness), mutation, migration, genetic drift

14. AP Biology Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg  Real-life applications:  Cystic fibrosis, polydactyly  Heterozygote advantage (Sickle-Cell Anemia)

15. AP Biology ESSAY 1989 Do the following with reference to the Hardy-Weinberg model. a. Indicate the conditions under which allele frequencies (p and q) remain constant from one generation to the next. b. Calculate, showing all work, the frequencies of the alleles and frequencies of the genotypes in a population of 100,000 rabbits of which 25,000 are white and 75,000 are agouti. (In rabbits the white color is due to a recessive allele, w, and agouti is due to a dominant allele, W.) c. If the homozygous dominant condition were to become lethal, what would happen to the allelic and genotypic frequencies in the rabbit population after two generations? Lab 2: Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg

16. AP Biology Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships  Concepts:  Bioinformatics: combines statistics, math modeling, computer science to analyze biological data  Genomes can be compared to detect genetic similarities and differences  BLAST = Basic Local Alignment Search Tool  Input gene sequence of interest  Search genomic libraries for identical or similar sequences

17. AP Biology Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships  Description:  Use BLAST to compare several genes  Use information to construct a cladogram (phylogenetic tree)  Cladogram = visualization of evolutionary relatedness of species

18. AP Biology Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships

19. AP Biology Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships  Use this data to construct a cladogram of the major plant groups

20. AP Biology Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships  Fossil specimen in China  DNA was extracted from preserved tissue  Sequences from 4 genes were analyzed using BLAST

21. AP Biology Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships

22. AP Biology Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships  Analysis & Results:  BLAST results: the higher the score, the closer the alignment  The more similar the genes, the more recent their common ancestor  located closer on the cladogram

23. AP Biology Lab 3: Comparing DNA Sequences using BLAST  Evolutionary Relationships

25. AP Biology BIG IDEA 2: CELLULAR PROCESSES: ENERGY AND COMMUNICATION

26. AP Biology Lab 4: Diffusion & Osmosis  Concepts:  Selectively permeable membrane  Diffusion (high  low concentration)  Osmosis (aquaporins)  Water potential (  )   = pressure potential (  P ) + solute potential (  S )  Solutions:  Hypertonic  hypotonic  isotonic

27. AP Biology Lab 4: Diffusion & Osmosis

28. AP Biology Lab 4: Diffusion & Osmosis  Description:  Surface area and cell size vs. rate of diffusion  Cell modeling: dialysis tubing + various solutions (distilled water, sucrose, salt, glucose, protein)  Identify concentrations of sucrose solution and solute concentration of potato cores  Observe osmosis in onion cells (effect of salt water)

29. AP Biology Lab 4: Diffusion & Osmosis

30. AP Biology Potato Cores in Different Concentrations of Sucrose

31. AP Biology Lab 4: Diffusion & Osmosis  Conclusions  Water moves from high water potential (  ) (hypotonic=low solute) to low water potential (  ) (hypertonic=high solute)  Solute concentration & size of molecule affect movement across selectively permeable membrane

33. AP Biology

34. Lab 4: Diffusion & Osmosis ESSAY 1992 A laboratory assistant prepared solutions of 0.8 M, 0.6 M, 0.4 M, and 0.2 M sucrose, but forgot to label them. After realizing the error, the assistant randomly labeled the flasks containing these four unknown solutions as flask A, flask B, flask C, and flask D. Design an experiment, based on the principles of diffusion and osmosis, that the assistant could use to determine which of the flasks contains each of the four unknown solutions. Include in your answer: a.a description of how you would set up and perform the experiment; b.the results you would expect from your experiment; and c.an explanation of those results based on the principles involved. Be sure to clearly state the principles addressed in your discussion.

35. AP Biology Lab 5: Photosynthesis  Concepts:  Photosynthesis  6H 2 O + 6CO 2 + Light  C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2  Ways to measure the rate of photosynthesis:  Production of oxygen (O 2 )  Consumption of carbon dioxide (CO 2 )

36. AP Biology Lab 5: Photosynthesis  Description:  Paper chromatography to identify pigments  Floating disk technique  Leaf disks float in water  Gases can be drawn from out from leaf using syringe  leaf sinks  Photosynthesis  O 2 produced  bubbles form on leaf  leaf disk rises  Measure rate of photosynthesis by O 2 production  Factors tested: types of plants, light intensity, colors of leaves, pH of solutions

37. AP Biology Plant Pigments & Chromatography

38. Floating Disk Technique

40. AP Biology Lab 5: Photosynthesis  Concepts:  photosynthesis  Photosystems II, I  H 2 O split, ATP, NADPH  chlorophylls & other plant pigments  chlorophyll a  chlorophyll b  xanthophylls  carotenoids  experimental design  control vs. experimental

41. AP Biology

43. Lab 6: Cellular Respiration  Concepts:  Respiration  Measure rate of respiration by:  O 2 consumption  CO 2 production

44. AP Biology Lab 6: Cellular Respiration  Description:  Use respirometer  Measure rate of respiration (O 2 consumption) in various seeds  Factors tested:  Non-germinating seeds  Germinating seeds  Effect of temperature  Surface area of seeds  Types of seeds  Plants vs. animals

45. AP Biology

46. Lab 6: Cellular Respiration

47. AP Biology Lab 6: Cellular Respiration

48. AP Biology Lab 6: Cellular Respiration  Conclusions:   temp =  respiration   germination =  respiration  Animal respiration > plant respiration   surface area =  respiration Calculate Rate

49. AP Biology Lab 6: Cellular Respiration

50. AP Biology

53. Lab 6: Cellular Respiration ESSAY 1990 The results below are measurements of cumulative oxygen consumption by germinating and dry seeds. Gas volume measurements were corrected for changes in temperature and pressure. a. Plot the results for the germinating seeds at 22°C and 10°C. b. Calculate the rate of oxygen consumption for the germinating seeds at 22°C, using the time interval between 10 and 20 minutes. c. Account for the differences in oxygen consumption observed between: 1. germinating seeds at 22°C and at 10°C 2. germinating seeds and dry seeds. d. Describe the essential features of an experimental apparatus that could be used to measure oxygen consumption by a small organism. Explain why each of these features is necessary. Cumulative Oxygen Consumed (mL) Time (minutes)010203040 Germinating seeds 22°C0.08.816.023.732.0 Dry Seeds (non-germinating) 22°C0.00.20.10.00.1 Germinating Seeds 10°C0.02.96.29.412.5 Dry Seeds (non-germinating) 10°C0.0 0.20.10.2

54. AP Biology BIG IDEA 3: GENETICS AND INFORMATION TRANSFER

55. AP Biology Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis  Concepts:  Cell Cycle (G1  S  G2  M)  Control of cell cycle (checkpoints)  Cyclins & cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)  Mitosis vs. Meiosis  Crossing over  genetic diversity

56. AP Biology Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis

57. AP Biology Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis

58. AP Biology Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis  Description:  Model mitosis & meiosis (pipecleaners, beads)  How environment affects mitosis of plant roots  Lectin - proteins secreted by fungus  Root stimulating powder  Count # cells in interphase, mitosis  Observe karyotypes (cancer, mutations)  Meiosis & crossing over in Sordaria (fungus)

59. AP Biology Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis

60. AP Biology Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis

61. AP Biology Abnormal karyotype = Cancer

62. AP Biology Meiosis: Crossing over in Prophase I

63. AP Biology Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis  Observed crossing over in fungus (Sordaria)  Arrangement of ascospores

64. AP Biology Sordaria Analysis % crossover total crossover total offspring = distance from centromere % crossover 2 =

65. AP Biology Lab 7: Mitosis & Meiosis ESSAY 1987 Discuss the process of cell division in animals. Include a description of mitosis and cytokinesis, and of the other phases of the cell cycle. Do not include meiosis. ESSAY 2004 Meiosis reduces chromosome number and rearranges genetic information. a. Explain how the reduction and rearrangement are accomplished in meiosis. b. Several human disorders occur as a result of defects in the meiotic process. Identify ONE such chromosomal abnormality; what effects does it have on the phenotype of people with the disorder? Describe how this abnormality could result from a defect in meiosis. c. Production of offspring by parthenogenesis or cloning bypasses the typical meiotic process. Describe either parthenogenesis or cloning and compare the genomes of the offspring with those of the parents.

66. AP Biology Lab 8: Bacterial Transformation Concepts:  Transformation: uptake of foreign DNA from surroundings  Plasmid = small ring of DNA with a few genes  Replicates separately from bacteria DNA  Can carry genes for antibiotic resistance  Genetic engineering: recombinant DNA = pGLO plasmid

67. AP Biology Lab 8: Bacterial Transformation

68. AP Biology Lab 8: Bacterial Transformation

69. AP Biology Lab 8: Bacterial Transformation  Conclusions:  Foreign DNA inserted using vector (plasmid)  Ampicillin = Selecting agent  No transformation = no growth on amp + plate  Regulate genes by transcription factors (araC protein)

70. AP Biology

75. Lab 9: Restriction Enzyme Analysis of DNA  Concepts:  Restriction Enzymes  Cut DNA at specific locations  Gel Electrophoresis  DNA is negatively charged  Smaller fragments travel faster

76. AP Biology Lab 9: Restriction Enzyme Analysis of DNA  Description

77. AP Biology Lab 9: Restriction Enzyme Analysis of DNA  Determine DNA fragment sizes

78. AP Biology Lab 9: Restriction Enzyme Analysis of DNA  Conclusions:  Restriction enzymes cut at specific locations (restriction sites)  DNA is negatively charged  Smaller DNA fragments travel faster than larger fragments  Relative size of DNA fragments can be determined by distance travelled  Use standard curve to calculate size

79. AP Biology Lab 8-9: Biotechnology ESSAY 1995 The diagram below shows a segment of DNA with a total length of 4,900 base pairs. The arrows indicate reaction sites for two restriction enzymes (enzyme X and enzyme Y). a.Explain how the principles of gel electrophoresis allow for the separation of DNA fragments b.Describe the results you would expect from electrophoretic separation of fragments from the following treatments of the DNA segment above. Assume that the digestion occurred under appropriate conditions and went to completion. I.DNA digested with only enzyme X II.DNA digested with only enzyme Y III.DNA digested with enzyme X and enzyme Y combined IV.Undigested DNA c.Explain both of the following: 1.The mechanism of action of restriction enzymes 2.The different results you would expect if a mutation occurred at the recognition site for enzyme Y.

80. AP Biology Lab 8-9: Biotechnology ESSAY 2002 The human genome illustrates both continuity and change. a.Describe the essential features of two of the procedures/techniques below. For each of the procedures/techniques you describe, explain how its application contributes to understanding genetics.  The use of a bacterial plasmid to clone and sequence a human gene  Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)  Restriction fragment polymorphism (RFLP analysis) b.All humans are nearly identical genetically in coding sequences and have many proteins that are identical in structure and function. Nevertheless, each human has a unique DNA fingerprint. Explain this apparent contradiction.

81. AP Biology BIG IDEA 4: INTERACTIONS

82. AP Biology Lab 10: Energy Dynamics  Concepts:  Energy from sunlight  drives photosynthesis (store E in organic compounds)  Gross Productivity (GPP) = energy captured  But some energy is used for respiration (R)  Net primary productivity (NPP) = GPP – R  Energy flows! (but matter cycles)  Producers  consumers  Biomass = mass of dry weight

83. AP Biology Lab 10: Energy Dynamics Pyramid of Energy Pyramid of Biomass Pyramid of Numbers

84. AP Biology Lab 10: Energy Dynamics  Description:  Brassica (cabbage)  cabbage white butterfly larvae (caterpillars)

85. Lab 10: Energy Dynamics  Measuring Biomass:  Cabbage  mass lost  Caterpillar  mass gained  Caterpillar frass (poop)  dry mass

86. AP Biology Lab 10: Energy Dynamics

87. AP Biology Lab 10: Energy Dynamics  Conclusions:

88. AP Biology Lab 10: Energy Dynamics  Conclusions:  Energy is lost (respiration, waste)  Conservation of Mass  Input = Output

90. AP Biology

91. Lab 11: Transpiration  Concepts:  Transpiration  Xylem  Water potential  Cohesion-tension hypothesis  Stomata & Guard cells  Leaf surface area & # stomata vs. rate of transpiration

92. AP Biology Lab 11: Transpiration

93. AP Biology Lab 11: Transpiration  Description:  Determine relationship between leaf surface area, # stomata, rate of transpiration  Nail polish  stomatal peels  Effects of environmental factors on rate of transpiration  Temperature, humidity, air flow (wind), light intensity

94. AP Biology Analysis of Stomata

95. AP Biology Rates of Transpiration

96. AP Biology Lab 11: Transpiration  Conclusions:   transpiration:  wind,  light   transpiration:  humidity  Density of stomata vs. transpiration  Leaf surface area vs. transpiration

97. AP Biology

101. Lab 12: Animal Behavior  Concepts:  Experimental design  IV, DV, control, constants  Control vs. Experimental  Hypothesis  innate vs. learned behavior  choice chambers  temperature  humidity  light intensity  salinity  other factors

102. AP Biology Lab 12: Animal Behavior  Description:  Investigate relationship between environmental factors vs. behavior  Betta fish agonistic behavior  Drosophila (fruit fly) behavior  Pillbug kinesis

103. AP Biology Lab 12: Animal Behavior

104. AP Biology Lab 12: Animal Behavior  Hypothesis Development  Poor: I think pillbugs will move toward the wet side of a choice chamber.  Better: If pillbugs are randomly placed on two sides of a wet/dry choice chamber and allowed to move about freely for 10 minutes, then more pillbugs will be found on the wet side because they prefer moist environments.

105. AP Biology Lab 12: Animal Behavior  Experimental Design s ample size

106. AP Biology Lab 12: Animal Behavior  Data Analysis:  Chi-Square Test  Null hypothesis: there is no difference between the conditions  Degrees of Freedom = n-1  At p=0.05, if X 2 < critical value  accept null hypothesis (any differences between observed and expected due to CHANCE)

107. AP Biology Lab 12: Animal (Fruit Fly or Pillbug) Behavior ESSAY 1997 A scientist working with Bursatella leachii, a sea slug that lives in an intertidal habitat in the coastal waters of Puerto Rico, gathered the following information about the distribution of the sea slugs within a ten-meter square plot over a 10- day period. a.For the data above, provide information on each of the following:  Summarize the pattern.  Identify three physiological or environmental variables that could cause the slugs to vary their distance from each other.  Explain how each variable could bring about the observed pattern of distribution. b.Choose one of the variables that you identified and design a controlled experiment to test your hypothetical explanation. Describe results that would support or refute your hypothesis. time of day12 mid4am8am12 noon4pm8pm12 mid average distance between individuals 8.08.944.8174.0350.560.58.0

108. AP Biology Lab 12: Animal (Fruit Fly or Pillbug) Behavior ESSAY 2002 The activities of organisms change at regular time intervals. These changes are called biological rhythms. The graph depicts the activity cycle over a 48-hour period for a fictional group of mammals called pointy-eared bombats, found on an isolated island in the temperate zone. a.Describe the cycle of activity for the bombats. Discuss how three of the following factors might affect the physiology and/or behavior of the bombats to result in this pattern of activity.  temperature  food availability  presence of predators  social behavior b.Propose a hypothesis regarding the effect of light on the cycle of activity in bombats. Describe a controlled experiment that could be performed to test this hypothesis, and the results you would expect.

109. AP Biology Lab 13: Enzyme Activity  Concepts:  Enzyme  Structure (active site, allosteric site)  Lower activation energy  Substrate  product  Proteins denature (structure/binding site changes)

110. AP Biology Lab 13: Enzyme Activity  Description:  Determine which factors affecting rate of enzyme reaction  H 2 O 2  H 2 O + O 2  Measure rate of O 2 production catalase

111. AP Biology Turnip peroxidase  Color change (O 2 produced)

112. AP Biology Lab 13: Enzyme Activity  Conclusions:  Enzyme reaction rate affected by:  pH (acids, bases)  Temperature  Substrate concentration  Enzyme concentration Calculate Rate of Reaction

113. AP Biology

114. ESSAY 2000 The effects of pH and temperature were studied for an enzyme-catalyzed reaction. The following results were obtained. a. How do (1) temperature and (2) pH affect the activity of this enzyme? In your answer, include a discussion of the relationship between the structure and the function of this enzyme, as well as a discussion of ho structure and function of enzymes are affected by temperature and pH. b. Describe a controlled experiment that could have produced the data shown for either temperature or pH. Be sure to state the hypothesis that was tested here. Lab 13: Enzyme Activity

115. AP Biology Any Questions??