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Quotas and contemporary politics An academic topic – subject of investigation Also a current political issue – writing on this topic frequently has an overt political agenda Pro quota groups (including some academics) promote the use of quotas as a way of advancing women - focus on the positive aspect of quotas Has been a topic of international discourse and the goal of gender equality in political representation widely accepted, also positive discrimination In developed democratic states linked to discussion on nature of democracy – status of parliaments and politicians Topic enmeshed in North/South power relations – idea of quotas has the support of external actors in reconstructed states
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Quotas World Wide Information from www.quotaproject.orgwww.quotaproject.org 89 Countries have some sort of quota 41 – nearly half, have voluntary party quotas – a quota for the % of women candidates a party puts forward for election 13 have voluntary party quotas plus a legislative quotas 19 have a legislative quota system only 16 operate a reserve seat system, mainly in Africa, also Pakistan and Afghanistan
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Five countries with over 30% women are not in the data base Cuba; Finland; Denmark; New Zealand; Belarus Denmark has 38% women in Parliament, Socialist party introduced 40% quota in 1977 abandoned in 1996 Denmark, Finland and New Zealand – early integration of women in public sphere Belarus – Democracy does not work – parliament does not matter. 10% in 2000, up to 29% in 2005 – why? Cuba – pattern in socialist states
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38 countries listed with some form of quota have less than 20% women in parliament Type of political system and electoral system can facilitate quotas – list systems easiest. Ireland current impact of electoral system 25% 5 seat – 7% in 3 seat (approx – will give accurate figures) Attitudes to gender – hidden barriers to women engaging in politics also significant Scandinavian model – gradualist. Overcoming social and cultural barriers Fast tract – increase numbers first change follows Do quotas empower women?
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Aim of Quotas Quota systems aim at ensuring that women constitute at least a "critical minority" of 30 or 40 percent Quotas for women - women must constitute a certain number or percentage of the members of a body, whether it is a candidate list, a parliamentary assembly, a committee, or a government. The quota system places the burden of recruitment not on the individual woman, but on those who control the recruitment process Quotas assume equality of representation is the goal is there a problem with this – are men more interested in politics?
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Arguments against Quotas Quotas are against the principle of equal opportunity for all, since women are given preference over men. Quotas are undemocratic, because voters should be able to decide who is elected. Quotas imply that politicians are elected because of their gender, not because of their qualifications and that more qualified candidates are not selected Many women do not want to get elected just because they are women. Introducing quotas creates significant conflicts within the party organization. Quotas violate the principles of liberal democracy.
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Arguments for Quotas Quotas for women compensate for actual barriers that prevent women running for political office Women have the right as citizens to equal representation. Women's experiences are needed in political life. Election is about representation, not other qualifications. Women are just as qualified as men, but women's qualifications are downgraded and minimized in a male- dominated political system. It is in fact the political parties that control the nominations, not primarily the voters who decide who gets elected; therefore quotas are not violations of voters' rights.
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Two concepts of equality The classic liberal notion of equality was a notion of "equal opportunity" or "competitive equality“ Equality of outcome - real equal opportunity does not exist just because formal barriers are removed. Direct discrimination and a complex pattern of hidden barriers prevent women from being selected as candidates Compare the application of these concepts of equality to positive discrimination in other areas Gender employment equality Employment discrimination legislation in Northern Ireland Positive discrimination in race legislation in the US
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The quotas debate in Ireland JOINT COMMITTEE ON JUSTICE, EQUALITY DEFENCE AND WOMEN’S RIGHTS, Second Report, Women’s Participation in Politics October 2009 Reasons for Increasing Women’s Political Representation A more representative democracy Advantages for Political Parties Public Support Increased Choice for Voters International Obligations Challenges for Women: the ‘Five C’s’ Childcare Cash Confidence Culture Candidate Selection Procedures
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Female Politicians define the problems - A legacy of conservative and traditional gender stereotypes Women tend to lack confidence compared to their male counterparts Women are more likely to lack the finance and the networks necessary to run an election campaign The political culture in Ireland is male The political culture is not family friendly and participation in political life can be particularly difficult for mothers of young children Women are less likely than men to succeed in the political party candidate selection process
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Committee’s proposal The introduction of mandatory positive action measures through legislation political parties would adopt gender targets or quotas in their candidate selection process. Following the Belgium, Smet-Tobback law, a maximum limit is placed on candidates of each gender i.e. parties are penalised if more than two-thirds of their candidates are of one gender. Enforceable penalties if target not reached, e.g. the French model of financial penalties.
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Gender gap in political attitudes Wangnerud, Annual Review of Political Science 2009 Inglehart and Norris, Rising Tide, 2003 Prior to 1990 – women more conservative, less likely to vote for a left wing party, less likely to be a member of TU Post 1990 position changes – in terms of voting and public opinion- women moving to become move left wing than men – more likely to support new policy areas e.g. environmental politics But women still less likely to join political parties and trade unions and more likely to belong to NGOs, civic or community groups
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Gender gap in Ireland – party support, voting intentions Irish Political Studies, 1999 FFmale 49 female 43 FGmale 17 female 18 Labmale 10 female 11 SFmale 2 female 2 Green male 2female 4 Irish Political Studies, Data year book 2009 FFmale 31 female 32 FGmale 33 female 31 Labmale 11 female 15 SFmale 10 female 7 Green male 4 female 5 Irish Times survey 28.9.07 55% of women not interested in politics
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How do we explain the relatively small number of women that support Sinn Fein As an example of a radical group Women as likely to vote as men Is the history of association with violence more problematic for women? Has the history of the party produced a more macho organisational and political culture? Does support for SF require a stronger political commitment that support for larger more mainstream parties? Why by comparison do more women support the greens?
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Substantive Representation Descriptive representation refers to just the number of women in parliament Substantive Representation is the representation of ‘women’s interests by women parliamentarians In 1998 only Sweden had reached 30% women in parliament now 26 counties have done so (www.ipu.org)www.ipu.org Too short a period to see evidence of substantive representation Little evidence of substantive representation – problem of defining ‘women’s issues’ and ‘women’s interests
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Women’s interests? Child bearing exposure to sexual harassment and violence unequal position in division of paid and unpaid labour exclusion from economic and political power (Phillips, 1995, 2007) Has also been defined as a more general interest in social policy (Wangnerud,2006) including Family policy Care of the elderly Health care In Sweden a narrowing gap over time between 1985 and 2002
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Problems with ‘women’s interests’! ‘Traditional’ women’s interests have been reflected in the assignment of ministerial portfolios and places on parliamentary committees – is this a reflection of ‘women’s interests’ or ‘women’s role’ Issues with a gender dimension – can follow other political divisions Women are not a homogeneous group Individual women politicians usually belong to political parties and have a range of political priorities and are subject to party disapline There needs to be an opportunity structure for advancing new policies
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