1. LANGUAGE, MIND AND SOCIAL INTERACTION

2. Linguistics is the scientific study of human language, it regards the ways in which members of a particular discourse community conceptualize their experience, encode it into a linguistic form, and then use that code in social interaction.

3. Language powerfully conditions all our thinking about social problems and processes. This explains why the systematic study of language necessarily regards both cognition (the way in which language structures thoughts in the human mind) and communication ( the way in which language serves social interaction)

4. Indeed, as we acquire language during childhood, we also discover: our identity as individuals (when we use it to refer ourselves and our ideas) our identity as social beings (when we communicate with other people)

5. This is why Linguistics has a significant impact on different disciplines, such as, sociology, cognitive psychology, anthropology, philosophy, language learning and teaching, neuroscience, artificial intelligence. Cognitive psychology is at the basis of the psycholinguistic view developed by Noam Chomsky, sociology, on the other hand, informs the sociolinguistic view advanced by Michael Halliday.

6. LANGUAGE AS COGNITION In Chomsky’s Transformational-Generative Grammar the aim of Linguistics is not simply to focus on how language is structured. In fact, he is principally interested in understanding more about language in order to understand more about the processes of the human mind.

7. Chomsky starts from the observation that although different groups of people speak different languages, all human languages are similarly governed by common rules, or principles, that are universal. Every language has rules that govern pronunciation, word formation, and sentence construction, providing a means for making assertions or request, asking questions and so on.

8. This means that languages differ from each other only at a level of their surface structure, but their deep structure is the same, reflecting the general rules of a universal linguistic system typical of the human species.

9. This universal linguistics system is a genetic endowment of all human beings. Chomsky defines it as an innate Language Acquisition Device (LAD) genetically programmed in the human brain. The LAD provides a series of common grammatical principles, or Universal Grammar (UG), and their realizations as variable parameters to be adapted to the varying ‘settings’ of the different languages.

10. The presence of the LAD in the human brain would explain why language development in children occurs so easily and spontaneously, and does not require any explicit teaching of the grammar rules on the part of the adults. Moreover, children are extremely creative in their use of language, because they can say and understand words and sentences that they have never heard before

11. In Chomsky’s perspective, therefore, language is exclusively a cognitive, abstract knowledge developing in the human mind completely detached from the contexts in which it is used. This, in fact, represents another way of looking at language, that is, as a socially motivated system developed to allow social communication.

12. LANGUAGE AS COMMUNICATION In Halliday’s Systemic Functional Grammar the purpose of Linguistics is concerned with the study of language as social semiotic, that is to say, as a system of signs that have been developed to serve the communicative needs of people living in a social context.

13. In other words, Halliday intends language not as a biological evolution of the human beings’ brain (as in Chomsky’s theory), but as a socio-cultural evolution prompted by the human beings’ need to communicate with each other within their own communities.

14. This means that language has evolved within a specific community in such a way that it fulfils three main functions: the Ideational Function, concerned with people thinking with language in order to interpret experience. the Interpersonal Function, concerned with people acting with language in order to achieve interpersonal communication. the Textual Function, concerned with the linguistic organization of a message.

15. These functions in Halliday’s view, are realized differently in different languages because they are coded into semantic and syntactic structures that reflect the different ‘social semiotic’ of different communities. Within each community, this semantic and syntactic code (representing the ‘grammatical system’ of its language) allows the expression of the social behaviour of people using it in various situational contexts.

16. Within the grammatical resources of their code, people are free to choose those structures that best convey their expressive and communicative intents.

17. PERSPECTIVES ON COMPETENCE Chomsky states that Linguistics should regard exclusively an abstract knowledge of language, which he defines as competence. Then he dissociates competence from the actual use of language, or performance. Contrary to this view, Dell Hymes argues that language is not simply an abstract, idealized knowledge of rules, but it is also the use of these rules to achieve communication (communicative competence).

18. Gumperz and Levinson claim that the rules of use in the various languages are different because they reflect the different socio-cultural experiences of their users (linguistic relativity, that is, the idea that culture, though language, affects the way we think, especially our classification of the experienced world).

19. THE EXPERIENTIALIST PERSPECTIVE A more recent Cognitive- Functional approach to grammar, informed by the Experientialist view in Cognitive Linguistics succeeded in bringing together these two theories under a common rationale. To Cognitive- functional linguists, language is systematically grounded in human cognition since it is a conceptual system that emerges from people’s everyday experience of their own physical and sociocultural environments

20. LANGUAGE IN SOCIOCULTURAL CONTEXTS Now we shall start by examining language variation and how it is conventionally classified into varieties, dialects and accents. Varieties are general variations occurring within the code of the same language (British English, American English) Dialects are local, regional varieties that differ from the standard language code in relation to morphology, lexicon, syntax, and phonology.

21. Accents are regional varieties of a language that differ from the standard code only in relation to phonology (various American, British and Australian accents). Variation in accents has also a social dimension, and this is often defined in terms of social status and prestige of the speakers. In Britain the prestige accent is the Standard English, the variety developed and spoken in the South-East of England, that is to say, in the area that includes London, Cambridge an Oxford. Standard English is also called Received Pronunciation and codified in the phonemes of the International Phonetic Alphabet.

22. Language variation, therefore, can be summarized into: Diatopic Variation, depending on the place where it occurs. For example: English spoken as the first, native language in England, Scotland, Wales, Canada, Australia, USA English spoken by as a second language in the ex British colonies of Africa, Middle East, South- Asia… English spoken as a second language within communities of immigrants living in English- speaking countries… English spoken by people living in non-English speaking countries, who use or learn it as a foreign language or as a lingua franca in intercultural or international communication.

23. Diastratic Variation, depending on the social status of its speakers. For, example: English spoken by London working classes (Cockney); by New York Jews, by east-coast WASP (White Anglo- Saxon Protestants: US upper middle class descending from the first white Anglo-Saxon colonizers professing the Protestant Religion; by English aristocracy, etc. In other words, our pronunciation, of both L1(our native language) and L2 (our second or foreign language) reveals a complex system of social meanings that we acquire in the course of our life.

24. Diaphasic Variation, related to the pragmatic dimension. The linguistic style or register differs according to the situational context in which the communication takes place. Diamesic Variation, depending on the communication means or channels. Diachronic Variation, related to the historical development of a language.