1. By Dr. Deepa Gautam 1st yr Resident ,Radiotherapy
PRODUCTION OF X-RAYS
By Dr. Deepa Gautam
1st yr Resident ,Radiotherapy

2. History
Wilhelm Conrad von Roentgen

3. Born in Lennep, Germany in 1845
Studied in Zurich, Switzerland
Appointed as professor of physics at Giessen(1879) and at Wurttemberg(1888)
In 1895, while investigating cathode rays, he noted a new ray with greater penetrating power coming from cathode of a vacuum tube, not deflected by magnetic fields, and named it as X-rays(unknown rays)

4. Announced his finding about X-rays before the Wurttemberg society(1895)
Received Nobel prize in 1901
Died at Munich on February 10, 1923, from carcinoma of the intestine.

6. The very first X-ray image of human body taken which was of Wilhelm Conrad von Roentgen’s wife’s hand with ring.

7. Dr. Charles L. Leonard(1903)
Demonstrated the power of Roentgen rays to alter the characters of malignant cells , prevent spread and development

8. X-ray Tube Consists of:
Glass envelope which is evacuated to high vacuum
Cathode(-) with tungsten filament and focusing cup
Anode(+) with tungsten target

9. The Cathode
Tungsten filament (atomic number 74 and high melting point of 3370oC) when heated emits electrons(thermionic emission)
Focusing cup directs electrons towards the anode so that they strike the focal spot
Diagnostic tubes have dual focus filaments separately for small and large focal spots

10. The Anode
Tungsten target with high melting point to withstand intense heat produced by electronic bombardment
Copper anode for removing the heat from target where it is cooled by oil , water or air (rotating anodes to reduce the temperature in diagnostic x-rays)
Copper hood for preventing the electrons from striking the walls
Focal Spot : target from where x-rays are emitted ( should be smaller for diagnostic purpose and larger acceptable for therapeutic purpose)

11. Principle of Line focus: helps in adjusting the size of focal spot
A is the side of the actual focal spot
a is the apparent side of focal spot, then
a=A SinӨ
Hence making the target angle Ө small, we can reduce the size of apparent focal spot
Ө is 6 -17o for diagnostic tube and about 30o for therapeutic tube

13. Heel effect
X-rays produced at various depth in the target vary in amount of attenuation , greater attenuation for those coming from depth
Intensity of x-ray beam decreases from cathode to anode direction
These variations can be minimized by using compensating filters

14. Basic X-ray Circuit Divided into:
the high-voltage circuit to provide the accelerating potential for the electrons
the low-voltage circuit to supply heating current to the filament
the filament temperature controls the current in the circuit due to the flow of electrons across the tube and hence the x-ray intensity

15. High voltage circuit X-ray tube with cathode and anode
Step-up transformer to supply high voltage and low current to x-ray tube
Autotransformer for stepwise adjustment in voltage
Voltage selector switch for selecting the turn of a coil in autotransformer
Rheostat to introduce desired resistance in the circuit and vary the voltage in continuous manner
Voltmeter for recording voltage to the x-ray tube
Milliammeter for recording the tube current

16. Low voltage circuit X-ray tube with cathode and anode
Step down transformer to supply low voltage high current to the filament for electron emission
Choke coil filament control to control the current from the main power line to the filament

18. The tube current and the x-rays are generated only during the half-cycle when the anode is positive
A machine operating in this manner is called the self-rectified unit.

19. Voltage Rectification
To solve the problem during inverse voltage cycle:
when anode is negative relative to cathode, no x-rays produced
When target gets hot and emits electrons which will flow from anode to cathode, bombard cathode filament and destroy it
Can be done in two ways:
Half wave rectification
Full wave rectification

20. Half wave rectification
Rectifiers placed in series in the high voltage part of the circuit prevents conduction during inverse voltage cycle
Two types of high voltage rectifiers:
Valve state type
Solid state type

21. Full wave rectification
Four rectifiers arranged in the high voltage part of the circuit so that cathode is negative and anode is positive in both cycles
Electrons flow from filament to target in both cycles
In fig, electronic current flows through the tube via ABCDEFGH when transformer end A is –ve and via HGCDEFBA when A is +ve

22. Physics of X-ray Production
Produced by two different mechanisms and give rise to:
Bremsstrahlung x-rays
Characteristic x-rays

23. Bremsstrahlung X-rays
Results from collision of high speed electron over a nucleus
Electron with its electromagnetic radiation when passes in the vicinity of nucleus , it suffers a sudden deflection (Coulomb forces of attraction) and acceleration
Part or all of the energy of the electron is dissipated from it and propagates in space as electromagnetic radiation

24. In megavoltage x-ray tubes , the electrons bombard the target from one side and the x-ray beam is obtained on the other side.
In the low voltage x-ray tubes, it is advantageous to obtain the x-ray beam on the same side of the target.

25. Characteristic X-rays
An electron with kinetic energy interacts with the atom of the target by ejecting an orbital electron
Vacancy is filled by an outer electron with emission of electromagnetic radiation
Eo(kinetic energy of incident electron), ∆E(energy given to the orbital electron a part of which is spent in overcoming the binding energy) and Eo-E∆ is the energy of incident electron after collision

26. Critical Absorption Energy
It is the threshold energy that an incident electron must possess in order to first strip an electron from the atom

27. X-ray Energy Spectra
X-ray photons produced by the x-ray machine are heterogenous in energy
Spectrum shows a continuous distribution of energy (bremsstrahlung) superimposed by discrete energies (characteristic)
With no filtration, inherent or added, the calculated energy will be a straight line and given by
IE=KZ(Em-E) where IE is the intensity of photons with energy E, Z is the atomic number of target, Em is the maximum photon energy and K is the constant

28. Spectral distribution of x-rays for tungsten target with no filtration and with filtration of 1mm aluminum

29. Factors Affecting X-ray Production
The output of an x-ray tube is often described by the terms:
Quality : the penetrability of an x-ray beam
Quantity : the number of photons comprising the beam
Efficiency : the ratio of output energy as x-rays to input energy deposited by electrons

30. The factors affecting those characteristics of x-rays are:
Anode target material
Tube voltage
Tube current
Beam filtration

31. Anode target material:
Incident electrons are more likely to have radiative interactions in higher-Z materials
The energies of characteristic x-rays produced in the target depend on the target material
The efficiency of bremsstrahlung radiation production is roughly proportional to atomic number
Thus the target material affects the quantity and efficiency of bremsstrahlung photons and the quality of the characteristic radiation

32. Tube voltage (kV) Tube current (mA)
determines the maximum energy in the bremsstrahlung spectrum and affects the quality of the output spectrum
also affects the efficiency of bremsstralung x-rays (Efficiency=9x10-10ZV)
Tube current (mA)
proportional to the number of electrons flowing from the cathode to the anode per unit time

33. Beam filtration:
modifies the quantity and quality of the x-ray beam by absorbing the low-energy photons in the spectrum
reduces the number of photons (quantity) and increases the average energy, also increasing the quality

34. Thank you