1. Chapter 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions James F. Kirby Quinnipiac University Hamden, CT Lecture Presentation © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

2. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Atomic Theory of Matter The theory that atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter reemerged in the early nineteenth century, championed by John Dalton.

3. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Dalton’s Postulates 1)Each element is composed of extremely small particles called atoms.

4. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Dalton’s Postulates 2)All atoms of a given element are identical to one another in mass and other properties, but the atoms of one element are different from the atoms of all other elements.

5. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Dalton’s Postulates 3)Atoms of an element are not changed into atoms of a different element by chemical reactions; atoms are neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions.

6. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Dalton’s Postulates 4)Atoms of more than one element combine to form compounds; a given compound always has the same relative number and kind of atoms.

7. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Law of Conservation of Mass  The total mass of substances present at the end of a chemical process is the same as the mass of substances present before the process took place.  This law was one of the laws on which Dalton’s atomic theory was based.

8. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Law of Multiple Proportions  If two elements, A and B, form more than one compound, the masses of B that combine with a given mass of A are in the ratio of small whole numbers.  Dalton predicted this law and observed it while developing his atomic theory.  When two or more compounds exist from the same elements, they can not have the same relative number of atoms.

9. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Methane and ethane are both made up of carbon and hydrogen. In methane, there are 12.0 g of carbon for every 4.00 g of hydrogen, a ratio of 3:1 by mass. In ethane, there are 24.0 g of carbon for every 6.00 g of hydrogen, a ratio of 4:1 by mass. This is a statement of the law of __________. A) constant composition B) multiple proportions C) conservation of matter D) conservation of mass E) octaves SAMPLE EXERCISE Answer: multiple proportions Methane and ethane are both made up of carbon and hydrogen. In methane, there are 12.0 g of carbon for every 4.00 g of hydrogen, a ratio of 3:1 by mass. In ethane, there are 24.0 g of carbon for every 6.00 g of hydrogen, a ratio of 4:1 by mass. This is a statement of the law of __________. A) constant composition B) multiple proportions C) conservation of matter D) conservation of mass E) octaves SAMPLE EXERCISE

10. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Subatomic Particles Protons (+1) and electrons (–1) have a charge; neutrons are neutral. Protons and neutrons have essentially the same mass (relative mass 1). The mass of an electron is so small we ignore it (relative mass 0). Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus; electrons travel around the nucleus.

11. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Atomic Mass Atoms have extremely small masses. The heaviest known atoms have a mass of approximately 4 × 10 –22 g. A mass scale on the atomic level is used, where an atomic mass unit (amu) is the base unit.  1 amu = 1.66054 × 10 –24 g

12. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Atomic Weight Measurement Atomic and molecular weight can be measured with great accuracy using a mass spectrometer. Masses of atoms are compared to the carbon atom with 6 protons and 6 neutrons (C-12).

13. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Symbols of Elements  Elements are represented by a one or two letter symbol. This is the symbol for carbon.  All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons, which is called the atomic number, Z. It is written as a subscript BEFORE the symbol.  The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. It is written as a superscript BEFORE the symbol.

14. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Isotopes Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different masses. Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons, but the same number of protons.

15. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Atomic Weight Because in the real world we use large amounts of atoms and molecules, we use average masses in calculations. An average mass is found using all isotopes of an element weighted by their relative abundances. This is the element’s atomic weight. That is, Atomic Weight = Ʃ [(isotope mass) × (fractional natural abundance)]. Note: the sum is for ALL isotopes of an element.

16. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. SAMPLE EXERCISE 2.2 Determining the Number of Subatomic Particles in Atoms How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in (a) an atom of 197 Au (b) an atom of 88 Sr? Solution (a) The superscript 197 is the mass number, the sum of the number of protons plus the number of neutrons. According to the list of elements given on the front inside cover, gold has an atomic number of 79. Consequently, an atom of 197 Au has 79 protons, 79 electrons, and 197 – 79 = 118 neutrons. (b) The atomic number of strontium (listed on the front inside cover) is 38. Thus, all atoms of this element have 38 protons and 38 electrons. The strontium-88 has 88 – 38 = 50 neutrons.

17. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. SAMPLE EXERCISE 2.3 Writing Symbols for Atoms Magnesium has three isotopes, with mass numbers 24, 25, and 26. (a) Write the complete chemical symbol (superscript and subscript) for each of them. (b) How many neutrons are in an atom of each isotope? Solution (a) Magnesium has atomic number 12, and so all atoms of magnesium contain 12 protons and 12 electrons. The three isotopes are therefore represented by (b) The number of neutrons in each isotope is the mass number minus the number of protons. The numbers of neutrons in an atom of each isotope are therefore 12, 13, and 14, respectively.

18. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. SAMPLE EXERCISE 2.4 Calculating the Atomic Weight of an Element from Isotopic Abundances Naturally occurring chlorine is 75.78% 35 Cl, which has an atomic mass of 34.969 amu, and 24.22% 37 Cl, which has an atomic mass of 36.966 amu. Calculate the average atomic mass (that is, the atomic weight) of chlorine. Solution The average atomic mass is found by multiplying the abundance of each isotope by its atomic mass and summing these products. Because 75.78% = 0.7578 and 24.22% = 0.2422, we have This answer makes sense: The average atomic mass of Cl is between the masses of the two isotopes and is closer to the value of 35 Cl, which is the more abundant isotope.

19. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Periodic Table The periodic table is a systematic organization of the elements. Elements are arranged in order of atomic number. Unlike the way we write isotopes, the atomic number is at the TOP of a box in the periodic table. The atomic weight of an element appears at the BOTTOM of the box. (They are not shown on this version of the Periodic Table.)

20. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Periodic Table The rows on the periodic table are called periods. Columns are called groups. Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties.

21. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Periodicity When one looks at the chemical properties of elements, one notices a repeating pattern of reactivities.

22. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Groups These five groups are known by their names.

23. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. SAMPLE EXERCISE 2.5 Using the Periodic Table Which two of the following elements would you expect to show the greatest similarity in chemical and physical properties: B, Ca, F, He, Mg, P? Solution Elements that are in the same group of the periodic table are most likely to exhibit similar chemical and physical properties. We therefore expect that Ca and Mg should be most alike because they are in the same group (2A, the alkaline earth metals).

24. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Periodic Table Metals are on the left side of the periodic table. Some properties of metals include  shiny luster.  conducting heat and electricity.  solidity (except mercury).

25. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Periodic Table Nonmetals are on the right side of the periodic table (with the exception of H). They can be solid (like carbon), liquid (like bromine), or gas (like neon) at room temperature.

26. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Periodic Table Elements on the steplike line are metalloids (except Al, Po, and At). Their properties are sometimes like metals and sometimes like nonmetals.

27. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Chemical Formulas The subscript to the right of the symbol of an element tells the number of atoms of that element in one molecule of the compound. Molecular compounds are composed of molecules and almost always contain only nonmetals.

28. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Diatomic Molecules These seven elements occur naturally as molecules containing two atoms: –Hydrogen, H 2 –Nitrogen, N 2 –Oxygen, O 2 –Fluorine, F 2 –Chlorine,Cl 2 –Bromine, Br 2 –Iodine, I 2

29. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Types of Formulas Empirical formulas give the lowest whole- number ratio of atoms of each element in a compound. Molecular formulas give the exact number of atoms of each element in a compound. If we know the molecular formula of a compound, we can determine its empirical formula. The converse is not true!

30. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. SAMPLE EXERCISE 2.6 Relating Empirical and Molecular Formulas Write the empirical formulas for the following molecules: (a) glucose, a substance also known as either blood sugar or dextrose, whose molecular formula is C 6 H 12 O 6 ; (b) nitrous oxide, a substance used as an anesthetic and commonly called laughing gas, whose molecular formula is N 2 O. Solution (a) The subscripts of an empirical formula are the smallest whole-number ratios. The smallest ratios are obtained by dividing each subscript by the largest common factor, in this case 6. The resultant empirical formula for glucose is CH 2 O. (b) Because the subscripts in N 2 O are already the lowest integral numbers, the empirical formula for nitrous oxide is the same as its molecular formula, N 2 O.

31. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Types of Formulas Structural formulas show the order in which atoms are attached. They do NOT depict the three-dimensional shape of molecules. Perspective drawings also show the three-dimensional order of the atoms in a compound. These are also demonstrated using models.

32. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Ions When an atom of a group of atoms loses or gains electrons, it becomes an ion. Cations are formed when at least one electron is lost. Monatomic cations are formed by metals. Anions are formed when at least one electron is gained. Monatomic anions are formed by nonmetals.

33. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. SAMPLE EXERCISE 2.7 Writing Chemical Symbols for Ions Give the chemical symbol, including mass number, for each of the following ions: (a) The ion with 22 protons, 26 neutrons, and 19 electrons; (b) the ion of sulfur that has 16 neutrons and 18 electrons. Solution (a) The number of protons (22) is the atomic number of the element, which means this element is titanium (Ti). The mass number of this isotope is 22 + 26 = 48 (the sum of the protons and neutrons). Because the ion has three more protons than electrons, it has a net charge of 3+. Thus, the symbol for the ion is 48 Ti 3+. (b) By referring to a periodic table or a table of elements, we see that sulfur (S) has an atomic number of 16. Thus, each atom or ion of sulfur must contain 16 protons. We are told that the ion also has 16 neutrons, meaning the mass number of the ion is 16 + 16 = 32. Because the ion has 16 protons and 18 electrons, its net charge is 2–. Thus, the symbol for the ion is 32 S 2–. In general, we will focus on the net charges of ions and ignore their mass numbers unless the circumstances dictate that we specify a certain isotope.

34. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Common Cations

35. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Common Anions

36. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Ionic Compounds  Ionic compounds (such as NaCl) are generally formed between metals and nonmetals.  Electrons are transferred from the metal to the nonmetal. The oppositely charged ions attract each other. Only empirical formulas are written.

37. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. Writing Formulas Because compounds are electrically neutral, one can determine the formula of a compound this way: –The charge on the cation becomes the subscript on the anion. –The charge on the anion becomes the subscript on the cation. –If these subscripts are not in the lowest whole- number ratio, divide them by the greatest common factor.

38. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. SAMPLE EXERCISE 2.9 Identifying Ionic and Molecular Compounds Which of the following compounds would you expect to be ionic: N 2 O, Na 2 O, CaCl 2, SF 4 ? Solution We would predict that Na 2 O and CaCl 2 are ionic compounds because they are composed of a metal combined with a nonmetal. The other two compounds, composed entirely of nonmetals, are predicted (correctly) to be molecular compounds.

39. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. SAMPLE EXERCISE 2.10 Using Ionic Charge to Write Empirical Formulas for Ionic Compounds What are the empirical formulas of the compounds formed by (a) Al 3+ and Cl – ions, (b) Al 3+ and O 2 – ions, (c) Mg 2+ and NO 3 – ions? Solution (a) Three Cl – ions are required to balance the charge of one Al 3+ ion. Thus, the formula is AlCl 3. (b) Two Al 3+ ions are required to balance the charge of three O 2 – ions (that is, the total positive charge is 6+ and the total negative charge is 6–). Thus, the formula is Al 2 O 3. (c) Two NO 3 – ions are needed to balance the charge of one Mg 3+. Thus, the formula is Mg(NO 3 ) 2. In this case the formula for the entire polyatomic ion NO 3 – must be enclosed in parentheses so that it is clear that the subscript 2 applies to all the atoms of that ion.