1. Tom Butler University College Cork, Ireland tbutler@afis.ucc.ie Ray Hackney Brunel University London, UK ray.hackney@brunel.ac.uk ECIS2015

2. Introduction The impact of climate change on the environment, ‘….. is real. The threat is colossal and ……… is ever increasing. This is the challenge of great urgency’ Malhotra et al, 2013) Green IS is truly transformative for business and society, so should be a transformative opportunity for IS research as well – both in its processes and outcomes’ (Lucas et al, 2013) Noting the recent MISQ Green IS special issue that Institutional theory surfaced research questions such as, ‘What government policies and industry standards will impel organisations towards greater environmental responsibility?’ Marett et al, 2013) …. we examine, as an exemplar, the transformative impact of Green ICT-related policies in the UK public sector

3. We adopt a problem driven approach to the analysis of the institutional mechanisms that lead to direct, enabling and systematic effects of Green ICT in the UK public sector The context is generally overlooked when considering the challenge of reducing GHG although it is responsible for between 35-38% of total ICT-related emissions across the whole UK economy The study employs institutional theory as a framework for our mechanism based theorising of how the organisational field can be structured to maximise the effects of Green ICT through a cross-sectional empirical analysis in the UK public sector The research contributes to mechanism based explanations of the steps national governments will need to take to achieve the targeted offsets or abatements in GHG emissions using Green ICT by 2020 Green ICT

4. Institutional theory can explain how regulative processes, normative systems, and cultural–cognitive frameworks shape societal and organisational system activities. In the process of institutionalisation, generalized models—beliefs, norms, menus and scripts—flow “down” through the various levels, carried by socialization, social construction, and sanctioning powers” (Scott 1995, p. 141). Institutionalisation is something that shapes “an organization over time, reflecting the organization’s own distinctive history, the people involved, the groups it embodies, the vested interests they have created and the way it has adapted to its environment” (Selznick 1957, p. 16). EG Currie, W (2012) ‘Institutional Isomorphism and Change: the national programme for IT – 10 years on’, Journal Information Technology, 27, 236-248

5. Coercive Mechanisms Regulatory processes involve actors establishing rules, inspecting conformity and manipulating sanctions – rewards or punishments to influence future behaviour. Macro-level Institutional Mechanisms (Scott, 1995) Normative Mechanisms Informal norms, values, standards, roles, conventions, practices, taboos, customs, traditions, and codes of conduct that guide behaviour and decision- making.. Mimetic (Cultural-Cognitive) Mechanisms External cultural benchmarks and internalized interpretive processes shape perceptions and explanations of social reality: through shared beliefs,categories, identities, schemas, scripts, heuristics, logics of action, and mental models

6. Institutional Change Our conception of institutional change draws on several perspectives from Institutional Theory. … the process of institutionalisation in and across an organisational field Involves the complex, continuous interaction of regulatory, normative and cultural-cognitive forces.’ ‘… institutional change is not a one-off process leading to isomorphism, rather it is continuous, as the legitimacy of the of organisational practices, processes and structures change due to ‘precipitating jolts’ from social, technical or regulatory sources Each of these stages is evident in the UK’s ongoing transition from unsustainable, inefficient ICT to efficient Green ICT. ……. our analysis attempts to capture the complexity of such mechanisms and explain them

7. . Model Analysis It is important to note in considering the model that we do not propose to test what is, in effect, a mid-range theory of Green ICT implementation. Nor do we wish to develop ‘testable’ hypothesis between what a positivist understanding of the world call ‘variables of interest’. As Institutional theorists we recognise that some mechanisms may be more or less effective dependent of the social context in which they are applied (Hedstrom, 2005) Hence it is a difficult challenge to specify a-priori which mechanisms lead to particular outcomes In keeping with the extant perspectives in institutional theory the field study aimed to achieve a mechanism based explanation of how direct, enabling and systematic effects of Green ICT may be realised (Marquis & Davis, 2005)

8. Political Opportunity Structures Strategic Leadership Network Cultivation Diffusion Framing Translation Bricolage Institutional Mechanisms (Campell, 2005) formal and informal political conditions institutional entrepreneurship creating social institutional associations the dissemination of concepts and social structures the use of metaphors and symbols which influence how issues are perceived how diffused concepts and ideas are transformed in context the recombination of concepts and practices Coercive Normative Cognitive

9. Direct, Enabling and Systematic Effects of Green ICT (OECD, 2010) Direct – refers to positive and negative impacts due to the physical existence of ICT products (goods & services) and related processes: - producers - consumers Enabling – Green ICT applications can reduce environmental impacts across economic and social activities: - optimisation - dematerialisation - induction - degradation Systemic – these promote and underpin behavioural change in individuals, business and society: - disclosing information - enabling pricing - fostering technology adoption - triggering rebound effects

10. Institutional Entity UK Municipalities Political Opportunity Structures Strategic Leadership Network Cultivation Diffusion Framing Translation Bricolage Coercive Mechanisms Normative Mechanisms Commitment Mechanisms Green ICT outcome Effects Direct effects Enabling effects Systemic effects Institutional Environment and Organisational Field

11. Eco-municipalities The Borough of Hillingdon (London), Manchester City Council and Bristol City Council are deemed as exemplars in the UK (and Europe) due to their adoption of Green policies and the use of ICT to make the transition to Smart Cities Methodology Key informants were formally interviewed and informal discussions took place with their team members Extensive field memos were taken and digitally recorded with data analysis involving constant comparison techniques and coding procedures using the mechanism-based conceptual model as an interpretive lens. Institutional Selection and Environments

12. Hillingdon Borough (London) The second largest of London’s boroughs it employs 3000 public administrators and has a sizable ICT function Hillingdon’s performance in achieving direct, enabling and systemic Green ICT effects is due to the strategic leadership mechanism (CIO, Steve Palmer) Palmer became SOCITM President in 2010 is an example of network cultivation and diffusion mechanism to translate Green ICT concepts and practice into the organisation ‘ICT is a great catalyst for change …. our staff think Green and they act Green’ – the outcome of ‘Green measures’ is a 14% reduction in power consumption and a saving of 162,900 km in staff travel

13. Manchester City Council (MCC) The Climate Change Action Plan commits Manchester to a 41% decrease in GHG Emissions by 2020. This political opportunities structure mechanism is more ambitious than most UK municipalities MCC commitments to achieving enabling and systemic effects of Green ICT was born from a web of factors to implement the Manchester Digital Development Authority (MDDA) Pivotal to MDDA success was securing European funding including the Intelligent Cities initiative which saw MCC engage in network cultivation with 20 EU cities and 20 universities – to make cities energy efficient. Thus, translation and bricolage mechanisms played an important role for MDDA

14. Bristol City Council BCC is a signatory of the Euro-cities Green Digital Charter, participates in the EU Smart Cities initiative and hosts a Digital Environmental Home Energy Management System (DEHEMS) Living Laboratory BCC Smart City programme political opportunities structures mechanism employs strategic leadership, network cultivation and diffusion mechanisms through the Bristol Futures Team The core objective is to innovate in the development of smart digital technologies through fundamental research, translation and bricolage mechanisms to reduce carbon emissions and achieve other social-economic objectives as well as social inclusion BCC has created several structures (network cultivation and diffusion mechanisms) at a local level to implement its Green Digital Cities Strategy

15. Findings In OECD countries environmental regulations are implemented through and by municipalities on behalf of central government Consequently this level of analysis, as opposed to national perspectives, is critical for instituting behavioural change around climate issues within local communities Two of the municipalities studied have achieved a large measure of success. Hillingdon is acting in accordance with government policy (Green-ICT) and is implementing Local Agenda 21 Manchester and Bristol are subject to the influence of normative mechanisms at national (Core Cities, Nottingham Declaration, SOCITM) and EU level (Intelligent Cities, Euro-cities, Green Digital Charter, Living Labs)

16. UK government employs a mixture of political opportunity structure mechanisms (Greening-ICT), normative mechanisms (CIO Council) as committees, eg SOCITM) as network cultivation mechanisms to exercise strategic leadership and cultural-cognitive/framing mechanisms (publications, etc) Notably, coercive mechanisms (CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme) had little impact on policy making at municipal level in either Hillingdon, Manchester or Bristol. All of the three municipalities are exercising strategic leadership in key areas of Green-ICT Actors in key positions demonstrate strong commitments to Green-ICT who have created opportunities to act to achieve the objectives of direct, enabling and systemic effects in their organisations

17. Hillingdon, Manchester and Bristol all imported concepts from industry through translation and bricolage with the help of ICT companies diffusion and network cultivation mechanisms Our study found ample evidence that the institutionalisation of digital technologies for eco-sustainability in the municipalities of Hillingdon, Manchester and Bristol had achieved success in the enabling, direct and systemic effects of Green-ICT

18. Direct Effects Producers RoHS, WEEE, Procurement policies, EPEAT etc. Consumers and Users PC and Server Procurement to EPEAT/Energy Standard inc. Thin-client, Reusing PCs, Extending equipment life-cycle (e.g. PCs); EU Code of Conduct for Data Centres Enabling Effects Optimisation Desktop and server virtualisation systems; PC power management systems; Building management systems; Smart grid system (Manchester Pilot); Transport and work scheduling optimization systems Dematerialisation and Substitution Switch to e-documents from printers; Tele-working; Teleconferencing Induction effects Smart meters induce the use of Web-based IS; New ICT help running data centres at higher temperatures. Degradation Effects Procurement rules on packaging and ease of recycling to overcome effects Systemic Effects Providing and disclosing informationSmart meters; Smart grid; Green ICT Scorecard IS; Green ICT Tool/Procurement IS; Building management systems; Bristol Methodology for GHG Emission Measurement; Bristol Green Addict IS Enabling dynamic pricing and price sensitivity Fostering Technology Adoption Switch to thin clients and notebooks; G-Cloud; Government Application Store; Green ICT Outsourcing Triggering Rebound Effects.There is an absolute reduction in workstations, networking switches, and software applications; however, the increased use of Smart meters and other sensors may offset reductions in ICT elsewhere Effect and Description Examples of Effects in the UK Public Sector

19. Cloud Computing

20. Conclusion Our research transcends the limitations of many previous IS studies by identifying with greater specificity and granularity the social and institutional mechanisms that led to the eco-sustainability outcomes in the municipalities studied ….. these effects do not occur naturally As Adger et al (2009) indicate the core problem is commitment to action across all political institutions, societies and cultures as digital technologies exist to achieve the direct, enabling and systemic of Green-ICT It is incumbent on IS researchers to consider institutional mechanisms and employ them mindfully in order to help undo the damage that unsustainable ICT-led growth has inflicted upon our environment

22. ‘ICT is quickly surpassing air transportation in terms of its carbon footprint’ Jenkins et al (2011) NASA and the European Space Agency are employing ‘space-based’ CO2 measurement tools (OCO3) which orbit the planet and monitor individual country global greenhouse gas omissions relative to international agreements ‘..... I do not want to be asked by my grandchild why we did not do anything?’ Prince Charles (2013) Notes

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