1. Chapter Two Section One

2. The Land: Its Geography and Importance  One physical feature has dominated the landscape of Egypt since the dawn of time. It is the Nile River.  The Nile begins in eastern Africa, near Lake Victoria.  It eventually branches into a fan-shaped delta that empties into the Mediterranean Sea.  The Nile River flows from south to north, but Egyptian winds blow from north to south.

3.  The Nile River provided its earliest civilizations with irrigation, transportation and fertile soil.  The Nile River Valley’s sunny, frost- free climate made it easy to grow many kinds of crops.  The deserts and seas that surround the Nile provided natural protection from invaders.

4. Early Steps Toward Civilization  Hunter-gatherers groups moved into the Nile River Valley as early as 12,000 B.C.  Over time, these people formed farming settlements.  By around 6,000 B.C, a Neolithic culture had formed there.  The early people of the Nile mined copper, most likely to make jewelry and tools.

5.  By about 3,000 B.C., the people of the Nile had developed hieroglyphics, the regions first form of written language.  Eventually, they developed papyrus, an early form of paper.  In 1798, a French soldier found the Rosetta Stone during an invasion of Egypt. This was the key to deciphering ancient hieroglyphics.

6. The Egyptian Kingdoms  Over the centuries, two distinct cultures formed in two distinct places along the Nile: Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt.  Upper Egypt was in the south and Lower Egypt was in the north.  King Menes united all of Egypt into one kingdom sometime after 3200 B.C..  Menes founded a dynasty, or family of rulers.

7.  In later years, the rulers of Egypt took the title pharaoh.  The time span between the rule of Menes and the time around 300 B.C. was divided into three kingdoms: The Old Kingdom, The Middle Kingdom and The New Kingdom.

8. The Old Kingdom  The Old Kingdom existed between 2680 B.C. and 2180 B.C., lasting about 500 years.  The Great Sphinx and the largest pyramids were built during the Old Kingdom.  Old Kingdom society was divided into two classes. The lower class included peasants and farmers. These people owed the pharaoh services. The upper class consisted of the pharaoh, the royal family, priests, scribes and government officials.  For more than 100 years after the end of the Old Kingdom, civil war divided Egypt.

9. The Middle Kingdom  The Middle Kingdom rulers were successful in reuniting Egypt. This kingdom began around 2050 B.C..  A people called the Hyksos, meaning “foreigners,” arrived from Asia and introduced new war tools like the chariot and the compound bow.  Based on Manetho’s accounts, many historians believe that the Hyksos actually invaded Egypt.  Other historians disagree, claiming that the accounts of the Hyksos’ brutality were made up.  In the confusion following the collapse of the Middle Kingdom, the Hyksos became more powerful.

10. The New Kingdom  During the New Kingdom, rulers in Upper Egypt drove the Hyksos out.  Hatshepsut was the first known female pharaoh.  Her stepson, Thutmose III continued her tradition of keeping Egypt’s borders secure when he ascended to the throne.

11.  Before Amenhotep IV took over as pharaoh, Egyptians believed many gods existed. This is known as polytheism.  Amenhotep believed there was only one god – a belief called monotheism.  The one god he believed in was the God of Sun, Aton.

12.  After the death of Amenhotep (who had changed his name to Akhenaton), priests regained control and Egyptians returned to polytheistic religion.  After his death, few strong leaders ruled Egypt. Ramses II was one of them.  Ramses II was able to keep Egypt united and he ordered many temples and monuments built. Pharoah’s who followed were not so successful, and by 300 B.C., Egyptian rule by the Egyptians had come to an end.