1. Chapter 15 – Architecture
Thinking Ahead:
How do the columns of the three Greek architectural orders differ?
What advantages did the arch afford the ancient Romans?
What architectural innovations led to skyscraper contruction?
What are some of the principles of green architecture?

2. Philip Johnson and John Brugee, College of Architecture, University of Houston, 1983-85.
This building is considered postmodern, because it celebrates many different architectural styles. A structure resembling a Greek temple rests on top. The main building resembles an Italian villa from the Renaissance.

3. Claude-Nicolas Ledoux, House of Education, 1773-79.
This drawing represents a plan for a House of Education building in France, which was never built. This drawing provided the inspiration for the College of Architecture at the University of Houston.

4. Philip Johnson and John Brugee, College of Architecture, University of Houston, 1983-85.
The atrium that sits underneath the colonnade on the roof provides a cool space to escape the hot Texas sun. It exemplifies how architecture is largely a product of its environment. Buildings and spaces are designed to work with the surrounding climate and terrain.

5. Environment and Technology
Each example of architecture depends on two different factors and their interrelation: environment and technology.
Environment is the distinct landscape characteristics of the local site. For example, a building designed to work well in the winters of Alaska must take a very different environment into account than a building designed for the South American Amazon.
Technology refers to the materials and methods available to a given culture. We have an expansive list of choices for technology today, but this was not always the case. Different types of structures become possible with different technologies.

6. Thomas Coram, View of Mulberry House and Street, c. 1800. Oil on paper.
This painting represents slave housing in South Carolina in the 18th century. These houses are very similar to ones found from the same time period in West Africa. The similar climate of the two areas required a similar structure. The tall roofs trap hot air, so the living space is filled with cooler air.

7. Walls that will hold up a roof:
The basic technological challenge faced by architecture is to build upright walls and put a roof over the empty space they enclose. Walls may use one of two basic structural systems: the shell system or the skeleton-and-skin system.
The shell system is when one basic building material provides both the structural support and the outside covering of the building.
The skeleton-and-skin system consists of basic interior frame (the skeleton) that supports the more fragile outer covering (the skin).

8. Examples of the shell system
Examples of the shell system. One basic building material provides both the structural support and the outside covering of the building
Top left: Pyramids at Menkaure (c BCE), Khafre (c BCE), and Khufu (c BCE).
Top right: The Lion Gate, Mycenae, Greece, 1250 BCE.
Bottom: Corner of the First Temple of Hera, Paestum, Italy, c. 550 BCE.

9. Examples of the skeleton-and-skin system
Examples of the skeleton-and-skin system. It would be impossible for glass walls to hold up such large buildings. The fragile glass exterior is the skin that surrounds the skeleton of reinforced-concrete and steel.

10. Tensile strength and technology:
The span between the elements of the supporting structure (walls or columns, for example) is determined by the tensile strength of the roof material.
Tensile strength is the ability of a building material to span horizontal distances without support and without buckling in the middle. The greater the tensile strength of the material, the wider its potential span.
Almost all technological advances in the history of architecture depend on either the invention of new ways to distribute weight or the discovery of new materials with greater tensile strength.

11. - The tensile strength of the stone used in the ancient Greek temple is fairly weak. Note how short the span of the lintel is in between each column. - The Roman Pantheon, with it’s large concrete dome (top left) distributes the weight differently, allowing for a far greater span on the ceiling, and more un-interrupted space on the interior. - The Houston Astrodome uses more newly discovered materials along with superior weight distribution to achieve an amazing span across the interior of the space.

12. We will examine the following architectural technologies:
Load-bearing construction
Post-and-lintel construction
Arches, vaults, and domes
Cast iron construction
Frame construction
Steel and reinforced concrete construction

13. Load-bearing Construction
Load-bearing: In architecture, this is a construction method where the walls bear the weight of the roof. This is achieved by piling or stacking any material (for example: stones, bricks, mud, and straw) right up to the roof level. Taller buildings that use this method (such as the ancient Egyptian pyramids) would require incredibly thick walls at the bottom of the structure, in order to support the weight of the building.

14. Pyramids at Menkaure (c. 2470 BCE), Khafre (c. 2500 BCE), and Khufu (c
Pyramids at Menkaure (c BCE), Khafre (c BCE), and Khufu (c BCE). Limestone. The architecture of early civilizations was mainly designed to imitate natural forms. The true meaning of the pyramids in Egypt is unknown, but many scholars believe they imitate the sun’s rays coming down to Earth, and would serve as a connection to the Egyptian Sun God Re.

15. This image shows a diagram with a cross-sectional view of the Great Pyramid’s walls. Note how thick the walls are, in order to hold up such a great weight of stone, and not cave in, in load-bearing construction.
Architectural Simulation: Mastaba to Pyramid

16. Ziggurat, Ur, c. 2100 BCE. Fired brick over mud brick core
Ziggurat, Ur, c BCE. Fired brick over mud brick core. Load-bearing construction. The shapes of these buildings in ancient Mesopotamia are wider and flatter than the Egyptian pyramids, suggesting the foothills that lead up to mountains. Mountains held special significance, as the Sumerians believed that mountaintops were the source of water, as well as the dwelling place of the gods.

17. Post-and-Lintel Construction
Post-and-lintel construction: In architecture, this is a system of building in which two posts support a crosspiece, or a lintel, that spans the distance between them.
Post-and-lintel construction is fundamental to all Greek architecture.
The posts are known as columns, and the rows of columns set at regular intervals around their buildings are known as colonnades.
Architectural Simulation: Post and Lintel Construction

18. The Lion Gate, Mycenae, Greece, 1250 BCE.
The walls are load-bearing construction, but the gate itself is post-and-lintel construction.

19. Corner of the First Temple of Hera, Paestum, Italy, c. 550 BCE
Corner of the First Temple of Hera, Paestum, Italy, c. 550 BCE. This temple was built with post-and-lintel construction. A row of columns is called a colonnade. Notice how the columns are not solid pieces of stone. They are made of several pieces, called drums. The grooves that are carved into the stone are called fluting. The slight swelling of the columns is referred to as entasis.

20. Parthenon. 447–438 BCE. Pentelic marble. 111 × 237 ft. at base
Notice the colonnades holding up the lintels to form the “roof.”

21. Architectural Simulation: Greek Orders

22. James Stuart. The Greek Orders, from The Antiquities of Athens
James Stuart. The Greek Orders, from The Antiquities of Athens. London, 1794.

23. Maidens and Stewards, fragment of the Panathenaic Procession, from the east frieze of the Parthenon, Acropolis, Athens, BCE. Marble, height approx. 43 in. Low relief: although the figures look round, they are still fairly flat. Showing the human figures from a three-quarter angle allows them to “turn back” in space, allowing them to appear deeper than they actually are.

24. Arches, Vaults, and Domes
Round arches, barrel vaults, and domes: innovations by the ancient Romans.
These were all made possible by the Roman invention of concrete.
Ancient Romans used colonnades in much of their architecture, which they learned from the ancient Greeks, but they perfected the use of the arch.
Round arch: A round arch is a curved, often semicircular architectural form that spans an opening or space built of wedge-shaped blocks, with a keystone centered at the top. A row of continuous arches is called an arcade.
Barrel vault: A barrel vault is a masonry (stone) roof constructed on the principle of the arch. It is essentially a long series of arches stacked against one another, like a tunnel.
Dome: This is a roof that is generally in the shape of a hemisphere, or half-globe. The Romans perfected the use of the dome.
Architectural Simulation: Round Arch
Architectural Simulation: Barrel and groin vaults

25. Round arch.
Round arch. Line art. [Fig ]

26. Pont du Gard, near Nîmes, France
Pont du Gard, near Nîmes, France. Late 1st century BCE – early 1st century CE. Height 180 ft. Romans revolutionized built environments with their perfection of the round arch, which allowed them to make structures with a much larger span than was possible with post-and-lintel construction. Several arches lined up against one another, as seen here, is called an arcade.
Watch the Video: Pont du Gard (Roman Aqueduct)

27. The Colosseum, Rome, CE. We can see rows of arcades from the outside, but barrel vaults and groin vaults help expand the space inside. This is an example of an amphitheatre, or double theatre, which refers to two half-round theatres that have been combined into one large one. The Romans invented this type of building.
Architectural Panorama: Colosseum (ROME, ITALY, 72-80)

28. Architectural Panorama: Pantheon (ROME, ITALY, c. 118-128)
Pantheon, Rome, CE. Interior view, left. Exterior view, right. The Romans were the first to perfect the dome. Note how the front of the building uses post-and-lintel construction at its entrance. In the interior, the building’s only source of illumination is the oculus.
Architectural Panorama: Pantheon (ROME, ITALY, c )

29. Pointed arches in Gothic architecture…
The architectural innovations of the Romans were used for large public buildings for centuries. In Europe, about 1150 CE, the Gothic architectural style began to develop.
The use of pointed arches appeared, rather than rounded ones. The pointed arch is not semicircular, but rather it rises more steeply to a point at its top.
The height of a rounded arch is determined by its width, but the height of a pointed arch can readily be extended by straightening the curves upwards into a point, with the weight of the ceiling descending much more directly down the wall.
Pointed arches produced an effect of amazing height and space inside Gothic churches.

30. Amiens Cathedral, France, begun 1220
Amiens Cathedral, France, begun Look at the incredible sense of height achieved by using the pointed arch. Pointed arches were primarily used in Gothic cathedrals, both in arcades, and in long complicated barrel vaults, as seen here. This type of vaulting in Gothic architecture is referred to as rib vaults.

31. Moses window, Abbey Church of Saint-Denis,
Saint-Denis, France. 1140–44.
The emergence of light and color reflected through the enormous stained glass windows transforms the interior of this cathedral into a transcendental religious experience.

32. Abbey Church of Saint-Denis, Saint-Denis, France. 1140–44.

33. The need for flying buttresses…
All arches tend to spread outward, creating the risk of collapse. Early on, Romans learned to support the sides of the arch to counteract this lateral thrust.
In the great Gothic cathedrals, necessary support was provided by building a series of arches on the outside of the building, whose thrusts would balance out and counteract the outward force of the large interior arches.

34. Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris, 1211-1290
Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris, Look how the flying buttresses support the outside Cathedral walls, but at the same time they appear light and delicate. They do not let the viewer focus on how heavy the stone is, because they do not appear bulky.

35. Architectural Panorama: Cathedral of Notre Dame, Paris (PARIS, FRANCE, ca. 1155-ca. 1250)

36. Cast-Iron Construction
Until the 19th century (1800s), the history of architecture was determined by innovations in the ways to use the same materials (mostly stone).
In the 19th century, iron, a material that had been known for thousands of years, but had never been used in architecture, absolutely transformed the way building was done.
Engineers discovered that by adding carbon to iron, they could create a much more rigid and strong material: cast iron.

37. Gustave Eiffel, Eiffel Tower, 1887-89
Gustave Eiffel, Eiffel Tower, Height of the tower is 1,051 feet. Iron was first employed in architecture in the 19th century, transforming the build environment. The incredible strength of cast iron allows for maximum rigidity with minimum weight. This structure demonstrates the possibility of building a structure of great height without any load bearing walls. It marks the beginning of the skeleton-and-skin system of building.

38. Frame Construction
Wood-frame construction: A true skeleton-and-skin building method, commonly used in domestic architecture.
The mass production of the common nail, together with improved methods and standardization in the process of milling lumber, led to a revolution in home building techniques.
Wood-frame construction is inexpensive and relatively easy.
Truss: In architecture, a triangular framework that because of its rigidity, can span much wider areas than a single wooden beam.

39. These are diagrams of wood-frame construction, which is the basis for most domestic architecture. The diagram on the right shows a truss. The triangular structure is very rigid, and can span a much wider area than a single wooden beam.

40. Wood-frame construction is the foundation for American domestic architecture. Note how the doors and windows are built into place using post-and-lintel building techniques – Postmodern

41. Architects paying attention to the environment of each location left: Massachusetts – brick provides insulation and protection against New England’s severe winters. right: Louisiana – plastered and painted white to provide cool insulation in the hot and humid summers.

42. Steel and Reinforced Concrete Construction
Reinforced concrete: Concrete in which steel reinforcement bars, or rebars, are placed to both strengthen and make concrete less brittle. This, combined with steel beams, led to the creation of the modern skyscraper.
The sheer strength of steel makes the modern skyscraper a reality. Walls no longer have to be load-bearing, or incredibly thick at the base in order to support the building.
(For example, without the use of reinforced concrete and steel, the walls at the bottom of a 16-story building would need to be six feet thick!)
With skyscrapers you can have large numbers of exterior windows and height.

43. Louis H. Sullivan. Bayard (Condict) Building, New York. 1897–98.
Large numbers of exterior windows
Ornamental detail with elaborate, organic forms in nature.
For Sullivan, the function of the building was to elevate the spirit of those who worked in it.

44. Frank Lloyd Wright. Robie House, South Woodlawn, Chicago, Illinois
The first truly modern architect
Like Sullivan, Wright believed in uniting architectural design and nature.
This is an example of one of Wright’s Prairie Houses
Note how the building reflects the flat expanses of the Midwestern prairie landscape of Illinois.
Cantilevered roof – a horizontal form supported on one end and jutting out into space on the other; was made possible by steel-and-reinforced concrete construction.
Allows for one to be simultaneously inside and outside.

45. Frank Lloyd Wright. Fallingwater, Kaufmann House, Bear Run, Pennsylvania. 1936.
Note how the building reflects the cliffs of a Pennsylvania ravine.

46. Le Corbusier, Perspective drawing for Domino Housing Project. , 1914
Le Corbusier, Perspective drawing for Domino Housing Project., The combination of a steel framework with reinforced concrete floors provided the foundation for the modern skyscraper. Floors made of reinforced concrete; steel rebars

47. Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret
Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret. Villa Savoye, Poissy-sur-Seine, France. 1928–30.
With steel-and-reinforced-concrete construction, windows, walls, and even stairwells can be moved to any location within the structural frame. Open interior space.

48. Ludwig Miës van der Rohe and Philip Johnson, Seagram Building, New York City, Le Corbusier and Mies van der Rohe are innovators of the International Style - 20th century style of architecture marked by its almost austere geometric simplicity Primary geometric forms – rectangles, squares, etc.
Ludwig Miës van der Rohe. Farnsworth House, Fox River, Plano, Illinois

49. Euro Saarinen, TWA Terminal, John F
Euro Saarinen, TWA Terminal, John F. Kennedy International Airport, New York, Innovative architecture. Rejecting the geometric International Style. This shows an incredibly different style than the Seagram Building, emphasizing curves and strong contrasts. It is defined by the strong contrast of openness, provided by the broad expanse of windows, and the sculptural mass of the reinforced concrete walls and roof.

50. Architect is looking at the environment – an airport; two huge concrete wings are symbolic of flight.

51. Frank Gehry, Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, Spain, 1997
Frank Gehry, Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, Spain, Innovative architecture - demonstrates architectural experimentation. The incredibly sculpted architecture creates fluid surfaces that make you forget that you are looking at a building.

52. Jean Nouvel/Ateliers. Jean Nouvel with b720 Arquitectos, Torre Agbar, Barcelona. 2005.
Innovative architecture- looks like a bullet.
Reinforced-concrete crowned by a glass-and-steel dome. Multicolored façade of aluminum panels

53. Adrian Smith and Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, Burj Khalifa, Dubai, United Arab Emirates, The Burj, or central tower, is currently the tallest free-standing structure in the world, at 2,684 feet (more than twice as high as the Empire State Building).

55. Tom Wills-Wright, Burj Al-Arab, Dubai, United Arab Emirates, 1999
Tom Wills-Wright, Burj Al-Arab, Dubai, United Arab Emirates, This luxury hotel sits on its own island in the Persian Gulf like an enormous wind-filled sail (again the architect is looking at the environment). The glass tower’s windows are covered by a fabric that reflects over 70% of the light and heat from the outside.

56. A cantilevered helipad doubles as the world’s highest tennis court, extending from the front of the building from the 28th floor.