1. Cross-Cultural Differences in Attachments

2. What has psychological research found? RESEARCH HAS FOUND SIMILARITIES: Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988) gathered results of 32 studies in 8 countries, using the Strange Situation to assess attachment. (Meta Analysis). One of the most important findings was the consistency of the secure attachment as the most common attachment type in all 8 countries. This supports one of the most central ideas within attachment theory – that a secure attachment is best for healthy social and emotional development. It is the most common form of attachment across cultures because it is the norm.

3. What has psychological research found? …BUT IT HAS ALSO FOUND DIFFERENCES: Cultures vary in the long-term goals that they have for their children’s development. Carlson & Harwood (2003) - cultural value in Puerto Rico is a strong sense of community. Respect towards others, sense of duty and obligation are valued personal traits. These values had a major influence on child-rearing and attachment. How a caregiver feeds, responds to and shows affection for their child is heavily influenced by culture. The Dogon people of Mali in West Africa are extremely attentive to their children’s needs & in constant proximity. True et al (2001) suggest this closeness explains why they did not see any insecure avoidant attachment behaviours. Cultures place different values on children and the role of the caregiver. Tronick et al (1992) - Efe people, live in close proximity to each other and receive more care from other adult women in the group than they do their own mothers. This even extends to breastfeeding.

4. There are basic differences between cultures COLLECTIVIST CULTURES INDIVIDUALIST CULTURES Emphasis is on group effort and cooperation (e.g. Japan) Focus on interpersonal development of infants More favourable reaction to obedience and social behaviour Less anti-social behaviour Emphasis is on personal achievement (e.g. USA) Focus on developing initiative in infants Mothers react favourably to independence (USA) More anti-social behaviour

5. Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg (1988) Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg carried out a META-ANALYSIS to find out about attachments types in different cultures. META-ANALYSIS: research method which collates & analyses data from many studies carried out by other researchers. Making it possible to gain a broad overview of findings. Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg wanted to find out: a)Whether the proportions of secure (B), insecure avoidant (A) and insecure resistant (C) children were the same in all cultures b)How much inter-cultural variation in attachment types exists.

6. Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg (1988) Complete the following questions: 1.Describe HOW Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg carried out their cross-cultural study of attachments. 2.Outline what the bar chart above shows about cultural variations in attachment. 3.Why is it important to look at the number of studies conducted in each country? 4.Some researchers have questioned the use of the Strange Situation in different cultures. Explain why. 5.Explain why it might have been an unfair test with reference to German and Japanese cultures. 6.Why is it important to note that all 32 studies were Western or Westernised?

7. Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg (1988)