2. Attachment is an emotional tie that is reciprocated between two people which develops over time between infant and primary caregiver

3. Attachment is a learned process and is a bond that is a product of the association between the pleasure of food and the person who provides the food. A behaviouristic explanation based on two concepts, CLASSICAL and OPERANT CONDITIONING. Classical conditioning (stimulus and response)– Before attachment is learned, the infant gains pleasure through being fed. Food is the unconditioned stimulus and pleasure is the unconditioned response. When the infant is being fed, the infant associates the person providing the food with the food. The primary caregiver is the neutral stimulus, which becomes associated with food. When the attachment has been learned, the infant gains pleasure when the primary caregiver is present so now acts as the conditioned stimulus and pleasure is the conditioned response.

4.  Operant conditioning (Dollard and Miller) When an infant is hungry it is in an uncomfortable state. So the infant will cry and the primary caregiver will feed the infant, providing a positive reinforcement for the baby. (Receive the reward of food and so are likely to repeat the behaviour). The food acts as a primary reinforcer and the person supplying the food becomes associated with the food and acts as a secondary reinforcer. For the caregiver, the food acts as a negative reinforcement as feeding the baby relieves them from the discomfort of having to hear the baby cry. The baby has now learned to cry to get the primary caregiver’s attention, and it feels pleasure when the primary caregiver is present and attachment is learned.

5. Plausible explanation of how babies become attached. It makes intuitive sense that babies will come to like those who feed them because they derive pleasure from feeding. Reductionist- reduces complex human behaviours to overly simple ideas ie. Stimulus, response, reinforcement. Animal studies- much of the evidence comes from animal studies e.g. Pavlov’s dog and Skinner’s mice so should be careful when applying to humans. Schaffer& Emerson- Found that attachments seem to be formed to responsive individuals that were more sensitive to the infant rather than the individuals who provide the care. Fewer than half of the infants in their study had a primary attachment to the person who usually ‘fed, bathed, changed the infant’ Harlow& Harlow Rhesus monkey formed an attachment with the towelled ‘comforting’ dummy rather than the bare dummy who fed them. This shows that simply supplying food is not sufficient for the formation of attachment and contact comfort is preferable to food comfort.

6.  Innate programming Natural selection has passed on genes that lead to attachment forming behaviours. Infants are born with an innate tendency to form an attachment that serves to increase their chances of survival. Carers also are innately ‘programmed’ to become attached to their infants. Social releasers (e.g. smiling, crying, looking cute) are critical to ensure that interaction takes place They are innate in infants and responses are innate in caregivers.

7. Lorenz’s study He showed that goslings took to him as their primary care giver even though he was human. He called this imprinting and shows support for the idea that attachment is innate because the ducklings instinctively attached to him. Universal Care giving and attachment is found in all cultures which provides evidence for the fact that it evolved. No direct evidence Despite great advances in genetics, there is no direct evidence of genes for attachment, which there should be if attachment is innate

8.  Critical period Attachments take place during a critical period of development or not at all. This is the period up to 2½ years, where infants are most sensitive to the development of attachments Hodges and Tizard A longitudinal study on Hodges and Tizard’s study on institutionalised children showed that the children formed no attachments in the early parts of their lives and had difficulty forming relationships with peers Czech Twins After being locked up and isolated from the outside world, they were discovered at the age of 7. Two sisters cared for them and eventually they were able to develop normal social functioning. This undermines Bowlby’s theory because it would mean they would not have been able to develop normal social functioning.

9.  The continuity hypothesis  The relationship with one special attachment figure- monotropy provides an infant with an internal working model of relationships. Bowlby’s concept of monotropy is that although infants form several attachments, they become most attached to one person, who is most sensitive to the infants social releasers. Internal working model is that based on the relationship that the infant develops with its primary care giver, it develops a model for all future relationships and emotional behaviour. E.g. secure children develop a positive working model of themselves derived from having an emotionally responsive and supporting primary caregiver.

10.  Hazan & Shaver Found that individuals who were securely attached as infants tended to have happy and lasting love relationships. Those who had insecure attachments found relationships less easy and more likely to be divorced. Bowlby’s theory continues to be the major theory of attachment Generate a great deal of research Enormous impact on emotional care of young children such as improving quality of parenting classes in children’s centres.

12.  Aim: To establish a method of measuring attachment to test how different children respond to strange and separation anxiety.  Procedure: Controlled observation of children aged 12-18 months. Middle-class American infants and their mothers took part. 1. Mother& child enter room 2. Stranger enters and talks to mother, gradually approaches infant 3. Mother leaves leaving stranger interacting with the child 4. Mother returns to greet and comfort child, stranger leaves 5. Parent leaves, child on its own 6. Stranger returns tries to interact 7. Mother returns, stranger leaves inconspicuously  Observers recorded the following behaviours: Separation anxiety : the unease the infant shows when the caregiver leaves Willingness to explore Stranger anxiety: Infant’s response to the presence of a stranger Reunion behaviour: the way the caregiver was greeted on return

13.  Findings: SECURE INSECURE- AVOIDANT INSECURE- RESISTANT Willingness to explore HIGH LOW Stranger anxiety HIGHLOWHIGH Separation anxiety Easy to soothIndifferentDistressed Reunion behaviour EnthusiasticAvoids contactSeeks and reject Percentage of infants 66%22%12% MothersSensitiveIgnored their infants Behaved ambivalently

14. Efficient methodologically- could measure a lot of behaviours quickly Easy to replicate- Method has been employd in world cover Lacks ecological validity- Location is different from infant’s normal environment However, infants experience new locations quite naturally Generalisations - Unreasonable to generalise for whole population as restricted to middle-class Americans. Lacks population validity- biased towards middle-class Americans as it ignores poorer Americans and non- American cultures Ethics - Infants found most situations distressing

15. Aim: To consider whether it is appropriate to use the ‘strange situation’ procedure with Japanese children. Procedure: 60 middle class, Japanese infants, aged 1, both boys and girls, and their mothers whom were all raised at home were the participants. They were observed in the strange situation Findings: 68% securely attached, (very similar to American sample) No infants classified as avoidant-insecure 32% were insecure-resistant (higher than American sample) When observed in detail, Japanese infants were much more disturbed and distressed after being left alone. So much so that the ‘infant alone’ step had to be left out for 90% of participants. Conclusion: Strange situation is not a valid form of assessment for Japanese children as it measures separation distress. However, Japanese infants are hardly every separated from their mothers until two years of age and being left alone is unusual for them. The strange situation incorrectly judges this as insecure-resistant behaviour

16. Procedure: Carried out a meta analysis of 32 studies in 8 different countries including: West Germany, GB, Netherlands, Sweden, Israel, Japan, China, US. Findings: An average of 65% secure, 21% Avoidant, 14% Resistant so similar to American study. There was considerable consistency across cultures other than Japan and Germany. German infants are more likely to have insecure- avoidant attachments. May be due to German cultural norm of keeping some interpersonal distance between parent and child. They are also encouraged to be independent from a young age.

17. Intra-cultural differences showed greater variety in results than inter-cultural studies which showed predominance of securely attached infants. Probably because of the characteristics such as socio-economic status and exposure to environmental stressors. Small sample size- some of the samples were very small. There was only one study in the UK, Sweden and China. To base a judgement about attachment types of a whole nation of children on one study may result in biased conclusion, as the sample used might not be representative of the whole population. Western technique- Suitable for western children and when imposed on different cultures, it might have led to some children (Japanese) to appear insecure resistant when in fact they were really securely attached. Truly cross-cultural- Wide range of cultures compared.

19.  Bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis : Children who are deprived of maternal care during the critical phase of their development will suffer irreversible psychological damage. [If an infant was unable to develop a warm continuous intimate relationship with his mother, then the child would have difficulty forming relationship with other people and be at risk of behavioural disorders.]  Had an enormous impact on the way we treat children- changed the treatment of children in hospitals. Parents are now encouraged (rather than discouraged which was the case previously) to stay overnight with their children. This is because it is recognized that it prevents emotional deprivation and promotes quicker recovery.

20.  Spitz & Wolf Studied 100 apparently normal children who became seriously depressed after staying in hospital. Children recovered well if the separation lasted less than 3 months. Longer separations were unlikely to have complete recovery.  Robertson & Robertson One boy under the age of three spent 9 days in a residential nursery but the staff had little time to attend to his personal needs. During his time, he would progressively become more withdrawn and despairing. When his mother returned, he showed anger and even tried to get away from her.  Skeels & Dye Compared one group of orphans raised in a home with a control group who remained in the original institution. After one and a half years, the IQ of those remained in the institute fell significantly while those who were adopted rose. The results proved to be the same 20 years later.

21.  Limitations  Bowlby et al. Children under the age of 4 were hospitalized with tuberculosiss. Nursing regimes were strict, care was impersonal. Children were visited weekly- not significant. Those children were compared to those who had not been in hospital and found no difference in terms of delinquency or forming social relationships.  Robertson & Robertson In another group, several other children stayed with a foster mother, who cared for them while their mothers were in hospital. She arranged for the children to visit them regularly. They slept and ate well and welcomed their mother when they came out of hospital. This shows that separation does not lead to deprivation as long as separation is minimized and substitute emotional care is provided Correlational Individual differences.

22.  Disinhibted attachments : A type of disorganised attachment where children do not discriminate between who they choose as attachment figures. They will treat near-strangers with inappropriate familiarity and be attention seeking.  Reactive/ Inhibited : Shy and withdrawn, unable to cope with most social situations and unable to trust or love others. They become isolated and very selfish and unable to understand the needs of others.  Affectionless psychopathy: Individuals who are believed to experience little guilt or emotion, and are unable to form meaningful emotional relationships with others. There was a boy whose mother gave him up for adoption. This was followed by numerous foster homes and eventual adoption at 18 months old. However, he appeared unable to accept affection and as an older child, engaged in lying, stealing, sending death threat etc.

23.  Aim: Investigate the effects of early privation on later development and to test the maternal deprivation hypothesis.  Procedure: A natural, longitudinal study over 16 years was carried out on children who were placed in an institution when they were less than 4 months old. They had all experienced early privation due to high turnover of staff. Some were later adopted or returned to their original homes. In later years they were assessed by questionnaires and interviewing the children and their peers.  Findings: The adopted children had close attachments to their parents and good family relationship however this was not the case for the restored children. This may be because for the restored children they had often returned to the same difficult circumstances that caused them to be sent to the institution in the first place. Whereas the financial situation of the adoptive families was often better, they had on average fewer children to provide for, and the adoptive parents were particularly highly motivated to have a child and to develop a relationship with that child. On the other hand, when outside the family, both groups were more likely to seek adult attention, be more quarrelsome than the control children who were raised ‘normally’ and they were less successful in peer relationships and were less liked by others. [DISINHIBITED ATTACHMT]

24. High in ecological validity- As it is a natural experiment. Little control over confounding variables- Also due to it being a natural experiment. The temperament of the child became a confounding variable as it is most likely that the more personable children with the better social skills would have been fostered. The ones with the most problems are likely to have remained in care. As a result it is difficult to be certain that the resulting behaviours at the age of sixteen were down to type of care. Therefore cannot infer a causal relationship between the effects of early privation on later social and emotional development. Effects of attrition- Being a longitudinal study. Not all participants starting the procedure continue to the end. Families move to other areas, no longer available or drop out. The ones who are left may not be representative of the initial sample leaving a biased sample.

25.  Rutter et al. Longitudinal study from 4 – 11 years old. Spent early years in conditions of extreme physical and emotional privation in Romania. Those adopted by British parents before 6 months showed normal development however those after age of 6 months showed disinhibted attachment and problems with peers. Suggests that long term consequences may be less severe than was once thought if children have the opportunity to form attachments. When children do not, consequences are severe.  Quinton et al. Ex- institutionalised women were experiencing extreme difficulties acting as parents. Their children had more time in care and they were less sensitive, less supportive and less warm to their children.

26. Discovered when 13 years old Kept in a small room and not spoken to since she was an infant. Effects: Could not stand erect and could not speak. She scored as low as a normal one year old on a social maturity scale. Could only understand her own name, Didn’t socialise, didn’t know how to chew, salivated constantly, was not toilet trained. After being found: Learned to walk, but with jerky motion, Toilet trained however urinated when excited Limited social skills Manage to acquire basic language abilities. But didn’t progress the way normal children would do as in she never asked questions, did not understand grammar, no advancements in vocabulary.

27. Birth mother died after the twins were born. For 5½ years step mother kept them in a small unheated room with a sheet of polythene for a bed Poorly fed Locked in a cellar sometimes, beat them with a wooden kitchen spoon, covering their heads with a mattress to cover their screams Effects: Found at 7, severely physically and mentally retarded and covered in scar tissue from the beatings. Severe rickets due to poor diet Couldn’t talk, no knowledge of eating habits, frightened of people and the dark. Stage of development was equivalent of 3 year old. After being found: Put into hospital until they were well enough to go to a special school for mentally disadvantaged children Made good progress Fostered by loving sisters By 11, speech was normal for their age, enjoyed reading playing piano, fairly active Emotional state improved greatly Eventually made full recovery

28.  Are the effects of privation reversible? Age Found Relationships whilst in isolation Individual differences in the child Quality of care after discovery Genie13Mother claims they had a relationship - No attachments Father claimed she was retarded Fostered by a family where she was abused. Also was mistreated by doctors and psychologists Czech Twins 7Had a relationship with mother for 18 months, had each other Care warmly by a pair of loving sisters. Limitation: Evidence is retrospective so cannot be sure about the actual conditions

30.  Key aspects of quality day care: Staff/ children ratio 1:3 average in order to give sufficient individual attention Staff turnover High turnover disrupts good attachments being formed Physical provisions Consistent routines and physical environments Staff training/ qualifications Staff will be more sensitive towards children and improves attachment security Dedication of staff Each child should be assigned to one specific individual

31.  Day nurseries 1:8 for children aged 3- 5 1:4 for children aged 2-3 1:3 for children aged under 2 Employed qualified staff  Childminders Maximum of 3 children Regular inspections by Ofsted Not all have childcare qualifications.

32.  Extensive non-parental care was associated with increased avoidance and insecurity of attachment  Children who spent more than 20 hours per week in day care were more insecurely attached than home cared children.  Securely attached children day care can have a negative affect but for insecure has a positive affect  Belsky and Rovine (1988) If the child is in day care for more than four months in their first year they are significantly more likely to develop insecure attachments

33. Shea ProcedureVideo-taped 3 & 4 year old children at playtime during their first 10 weeks at nursery school. FindingsChildren became more sociable the longer they were in day care. They stood closer together and engaged in more rough-and tumble-play. EvaluationWell-structured observation, looking at measurable behaviour. Clarke- Stewart ProcedureStudied 150 children attending school for the first time, who’d experienced different forms of day care. FindingsNurseries- better in social situations, interact better with peers than those raised in family settings EvaluationRelatively small study, with just 150 pps. Can generalise but with caution

34. Anderson ProcedureStudied social and cognitive progress of children attending Swedish day care. FindingsMore sociable, outgoing, better abilities to play and get along with peers better than those who did not attend day care. EvaluationSwedish day care is particularly good quality EPPE project ProcedureStudied over 3000 children in UK, between 3-7 years old FindingsIncreased independence & Peer sociability at 5 years EvaluationLarge sample size means can be generalised with confidence, at least to other UK children.

35. Di Lalla ProcedureCorrelational study into time spent in day care and pro-social behaviour FindingsNegative correlation- Children spending more time in day care were less cooperative or helpful with peers. Cambell et al. ProcedureStudied children in Sweden from 18 months- 3½ years. Some attending nursery, some attending family based care and control group FindingsImpact of day care differ depending on the child’s age, length of stay and quality. Good quality day care up to age 3 ½ is essential for development of socially skilled children and teenagers.

36. NICHD study ProcedureLongitudinal study on over 1000 American children from different backgrounds FindingsAll those at 5 years old- more time they spent in day care, the more they were rated as disobedient and aggressive (talking back at adults, demanding lots of attention). Children in full time day care were almost 3x more likely to show behavioural problems that those at home. Positive correlation between time and amount of aggressive behaviour EvaluationCorrelational, may be unknown factor which affected both these sets of data. 83% children spending between 10-30 hours per week in day care showed no increase in aggression Results were magnified.

37. EPPE project ProcedureStudied over 3000 children in UK, 3- 7 years old FindingsSlight risk of antisocial behaviour when children spend more than 20 hours per week in nurseries. More noticeable when they spend more than 40 hours a week. Increased aggression amongst children who’d experienced high staff turnover. EvaluationFindings are robust because they are based on sound research methods. Baker et al. ProcedureAnalysed data on 33,000 children of two parent families in Quebec FindingsAfter day care became widely available, aggression among 2-4 year old increased by 24%

38.  Larner et al. Longitudinal study of 120 Swedish children beginning at 1 – 10 years. By age 10, individual differences in children's development were overtaking the effects of their early care arrangements. There was no difference in later behaviour with those cared for at home and those who had previous out of home care.  Roggman et al Compared infants who had attended day care in the first year with those who had remained at home and found no difference in attachment with mothers.

39.  Methodology- Due to ethical considerations, researchers cannot conduct experiments  Age of commence- Time spent in day care varies,  Temperament of child- Affects how child reacts to separation  Family backgrounds- wealthier middle class children are more likely to spend longer time in good quality care  Quality of day care  Control all variables- mothers with certain characteristics will chose day care meaning children will be influenced by different characteristics which will influence the social development of the child. Meaning the researchers cannot control all the variables

40.  Adoption: In the past, mothers that were going to give up their baby were encouraged to nurse the baby for as long as possible meaning that the critical period for the new family to make secure attachments would have passed. Thanks to Bowlby’s research, babies are now adopted within the first week of birth. Showing that adoptive mothers and children are just as securely attached as non-adopted children. (see slide 25)

41.  Sure start Government initiative aimed to break the cycle of poverty by providing high quality day care for children and support for their families.  EPPE project Led to the Government commit to the promise of a preschool place for every 3 year old from 2004. Also led to Gordon Brown to announce in December 2004, paid parental leave after child birth would be extended from 6 to 9 months. (after finding that time in group based play leads to aggression)