1. APES Monday, April 13 th, 2015  Reminders:  EVERYONE: APES Math Review Worksheet – due tomorrow!  AP Testers: Princeton Review Assignment (not due till after AP Test)  Ocean Acidification Lab: need from Jamie & Destiny  APES Exam is Monday, May 4 th @ 8:00 am; LEOCT is Friday, May 8 th  Today’s Schedule:  Get Back Graded Work  Get Unit 12 Vocab List: due with quiz Monday, April 20 th  Start Unit 12 Guided Notes

2. Geology & Mineral Resources Chapters 16

3. Geology  Earth is dynamic planet whose surface & interior are constantly changing  3 Main Layers of the Earth 1. Core 2. Mantle 3. Crust

4. Geology  Layers of the Earth

5. Geology  Layers of the Earth  Continental crust: under continents. 25-90 km (15–56 mi) thick  Oceanic crust: under oceans. Thinner than continental. 5-10 km thick (3.6- 6.2 miles)  Lithosphere: Outer part of earth. Combination of crust & upper mantle. Rigid layers.  Asthenosphere: Part of the mantle. Very hot, partially melted rock. Like silly putty. ~180 km thick (112 miles)

6. Geology  Layers of the Earth  Mesosphere: Part of the mantle. Partially melted rock – very hot. Mesosphere ends ~1,800 mi down  Outer core: Liquid metals. Extremely hot. ~2260 km (1400 mi) thick  Inner core: Solid metal. Intense pressure keeps inner core solid. 2270 km (1400 miles) thick

7. Geology  Crust and Upper Mantle

8. Geology  Internal Processes  2 kinds of movement occur in mantle’s asthenosphere: 1. Mantle plumes – mantle rock flows slowly upward in a column  When reaches the top, it moves out in radial pattern 2. Convection cells/ currents that move large volumes of rock & heat in loops

9. Geology  Internal Process

10. Geology  Plate Tectonics  Flow of energy & heated material in mantle’s convection cells cause 15 tectonic plates to move slowly across earth’s surface  Move from 1 -18 cm per year  Plate Tectonics = theory explaining movements of plates & the processes that occur at their boundaries (updated version of continental drift)  Throughout earth’s history, continents have split & joined as plates have very slowly drifted thousands of km back & forth across the planet’s surface

11. Geology  Plate Tectonics

12. Geology  Plate Tectonics: 3 Types of boundaries 1. Divergent Boundary: 2 plates moving away from each other 2. Convergent Boundary: 2 plates pushed together;  Subduction Zone: when a convergent boundary occurs between a continental plate and oceanic plate  continental plate rides up over denser oceanic plat and pushes it down into mantle (process called subduction) 3. Transform Fault: 2 tectonic plates slide & grind past each other horizontally, along a fracture in lithosphere

13. Geology  Plate Tectonics

14. Geology  External Processes  = geological changes based on energy from sun & gravity  While internal processes build up earth’s surface, external processes tend to wear it down  Ex:  Erosion: material is dissolved, loosened or worn away from one area & deposited elsewhere  driven by water & wind; accelerated by human activities

15. Geology  External Processes Include :  Mechanical weathering: rocks broken down into smaller pieces  Frost wedging: forcing apart of rocks by expansion of water as it freezes in fractures & pores  Chemical weathering: rock is decomposed due to influence of water, oxygen, & carbon dioxide  Biological weathering: breakdown of rock through action of plants & animals

16. Geology  Geological Hazards  Earthquake: shaking of ground from fracturing & displacement of rock, creating a fault  Severity is measured by magnitude – measure of amount of energy released  Scientists use Richter Scale – each unit represents an amplitude 10 times greater than next smaller unit; 6.0 quake is 100 times greater than 4.0  Volcano: where magma reaches earth’s surface through a central vent or long crack  Can release debris, liquid lava, gases (water vapor, carbon dioxide, & sulfur dioxide)

17. Geology  Natural Hazard: Earthquakes

18. Geology  Mount St. Helens

19. Geology  Rocks and Minerals  Crust is source of fossil fuels, metallic minerals, & nonmetallic minerals  Mineral: element or inorganic compound that occurs naturally & is solid w/ regular, crystalline structure  Ex: gold, silver, diamond, sulfur; salts, quartz  Rock: solid combination of one or more minerals that is part of crust  Ex: limestone (CaCO 3 ) and quartzite (silicon dioxide, SiO 2 )

20. Geology  Rock Cycle: interaction of physical & chemical processes that changes rocks from one type to another

21. Geology  3 Types of Rock: 1. Igneous rock: formed by solidification of molten magma (granite, lava rock) 2. Sedimentary rock: formed from layers of sediments produced by erosion of existing rock  become compacted (sandstone from sand; limestone from compacted shells & skeletons; coal from plant remains ) 3. Metamorphic rock: formed when rock is subjected to high pressure &/or heat (marble, slate) Video

22. Mineral Resources  Mineral Resources  Two major types  Metallic minerals  Nonmetallic minerals  Are NONRENEWABLE Resources!

23. Mineral Resources  Ore  = rock that contains a large enough [ ] of a particular mineral to be profitable  Can be considered high-grade (high [ ]) or low-grade (low [ ])

24. Mineral Resources  Metallic Mineral Resources  Aluminum (Al) – used for packaging, structural materials  Iron (Fe) – used to make steel  Steel – alloy of iron & other elements:  Manganese (Mn)  Cobalt (Co)  Chromium (Cr)  Copper (Cu) – wiring  Gold (Au) – electrical equipment, coins, jewelry

25. Mineral Resources  Nonmetallic Mineral Resources  Sand – used to make glass, bricks, concrete  Gravel – used for roads, to make concrete

26. Mineral Resources  Types of Mining:  Surface mining: removes shallow mineral deposits  Materials lying over a deposit are removed to expose the resource for processing  Surface mining is used to extract ~90% of nonfuel mineral resources & ~60% of coal in U.S.

27. Mineral Resources  Types of Surface Mining: 1. Open-pit mining: machines dig large holes & remove metal ores  Used for iron, copper, gold, sand, gravel, stone

28. Mineral Resources  Types of Surface Mining: 2. Strip mining: extracting mineral deposits that lie in large horizontal beds close to earth’s surface; 2 types:  1. Area strip mining: when terrain is flat, an earthmover strips away overburden & a power shovel removes mineral deposit

29. Mineral Resources  Types of Surface Mining : 2. Strip mining cont.  2. Contour strip mining: used to mine coal on hilly terrain

30. Mineral Resources  Types of Surface Mining: 3. Mountaintop Removal: explosives, earth movers, power shoves, etc. are used to remove top of a mountain and expose seams of coal

31. Mineral Resources  Subsurface Mining:  Underground mineral resources are removed through tunnels & shafts  Used to remove coal & metal ores

32. Mineral Resources  The Damage of Mining:  Scarring & disruption of the land  Ex: area strip mining leaves spoil banks – no topsoil  slow vegetative growth; high erosion  Mountaintop removal puts waste into valleys  destroys forests, buries streams  Wastewater and toxic sludge produced when coal is processed can release toxins into water  Produce lots of solid waste – contribute to water & air pollution  Acid mine drainage: when rainwater seeps through a mine or spoil piles & carries sulfuric acid into streams and groundwater

33. Mineral Resources  The Damage of Mining cont.:  Water used to process ore contains sulfuric acid, mercury, arsenic  contaminates freshwater  Ore waste material is piled (called tailings)  contaminates surface and groundwater  Smelting: heating ores to extract metals  Causes air pollution (sulfur dioxide, particles, greenhouse gases), water pollution, liquid & solid waste

34. APES Tuesday, April 13 th, 2015  Reminders:  Unit 12 Vocab : due with quiz Monday, April 20 th  Unit 12 TEST is definitely next week (Tues or Thurs)  AP Testers: Princeton Review Assignment (not due till after AP Test)  APES Exam is Monday, May 4 th @ 8:00 am; LEOCT is Friday, May 8 th  Today’s Schedule:  Cont. Unit 12 Guided Notes  APES Math Review Worksheet  Oreo Cookies Plate Techtonics

35. Mineral Resources

36.  How long will supplies last?  5 countries supply most of world’s nonrenewable mineral resources:  US, Canada, Russia, South Africa & Australia  US imports all of its supplies of 20 key resources  4 strategic metal resources – manganese, cobalt, chromium, & platinum – are not available in US but important for economy & military

37. Mineral Resources  How long will supplies last?  Future supply depends on current supply and rate of use  Supplies can become economically depleted – costs more than it is worth  Depletion time = time it takes to use up a certain proportion of the reserves of a mineral at a given rate of use  Usually set at 80% of reserves used

38. Mineral Resources  How long will supplies last?  Depletion time depends on:  Recycling & reuse of supplies  Technology  Prices  New discoveries  Shortest depletion time from no recycling, no new discoveries  Longest depletion time from recycling, reuse, better technology, new discoveries, etc.

39. Mineral Resources  Solutions…  Biomining: using genetically-engineered microorganisms that breakdown rock material and extract minerals  Getting minerals from the ocean (such as copper, lead, zinc, etc.)  Right now, it costs too much  Substitute materials: plastics, fiber-optic glass cables  Recycle & Reuse  Ex: recycling aluminum can produces 95% less air pollution & uses 95% less energy  Cleaner Production – pollution & waste prevention by companies