1. Logical Fallacies

2. What’s a logical fallacy and why should you care? It’s poor logic partly consisting of overgeneralizations and assumptions. The presence of logical fallacies may weaken a writing project. When you’re developing an argument, your points should follow in logical order and make proper conclusions. When you’re refuting a counterargument (procatalepsis), it’s useful to point out logical fallacies as weak points in your opponent’s argument.

3. Logical Fallacies: Several Examples non sequitor: reasoning doesn’t hold together, "doesn't follow“ bandwagon: recommends a course of action just because “everyone else” is doing it equivocation: ambiguity either/or: false binaries faulty generalization: inadequate evidence & jumps to conclusions

4. Logical Fallacies: More Examples faulty causal: cause & effect problem faulty analogy: analogy does not hold; compared parts dissimilar begging the question: circular reasoning & tautological definitions ad hominem: argument switches to character slander

5. Logical Fallacies: Still More Examples ad populum: appeals to irrational fears & prejudices red herring: dodges main issue (refers to red herring dragged across the paths of hounds to throw them off in their pursuit) complex question: two-pronged question "When did you stop stealing?" (combines two questions, one implied)

6. Now You Try It! For the next group of slides, identify the logical fallacy at work in each. You may choose among these terms: nonsequitor, equivocation, faulty generalization, bandwagon, faulty causal, faulty analogy, begging the question, ad hominem, ad populem, red herring, and complex question.

7. Identify Logical Fallacies “ ‘Either they voted for the candidate or they voted for the candidate’s opponent’ ” (Corbett and Connors 67). “Any man who is honest will not steal. My client is honest. Therefore, my client would not steal” (Corbett and Connors 69).

8. Answers “ ‘Either they voted for the candidate or they voted for the candidate’s opponent’ ” (Corbett and Connors 67). EITHER/OR FALLACY “Any man who is honest will not steal. My client is honest. Therefore, my client would not steal” (Corbett and Connors 69). BEGGING THE QUESTION

9. Identify the Logical Fallacy “ ‘My opponent’s arguments are very impressive, but remember, this is the man who deserted his faithful wife and family after he had won his first political victory’ ” (Corbett and Connors 70).

10. Answer “ ‘My opponent’s arguments are very impressive, but remember, this is the man who deserted his faithful wife and family after he had won his first political victory’ ” (Corbett and Connors 70). AD HOMINEM

11. Identify Logical Fallacies “ ‘You accuse me of cheating on my income tax, but doesn’t everybody cheat a little bit’ ” ? (Corbett and Connors 70) “ ‘Why did you steal the diamond ring’ ” ? (Corbett and Connors 71)

12. Answers “ ‘You accuse me of cheating on my income tax, but doesn’t everybody cheat a little bit’ ” (Corbett and Connors 70)? RED HERRING OR FAULTY GENERALIZATION “ ‘Why did you steal the diamond ring’ “ (Corbett and Connors 71)? COMPLEX QUESTION

13. Detecting Logical Fallacies: Examine this Excerpt “But it is not meant that all American writers should studiously cleave to nationality in their writings; only this, no American writer should write like an Englishman or a Frenchman; let him write like a man, for then he will be sure to write like an American. Let us away with this leaven of literary flunkeyism towards England” (Melville 275). Melville, Herman. “Hawthorne and His Mosses.” American Experience: Nonfiction. Dora Smith, Gen. Ed. New York: MacMillan, 1984. 269-277. Version Date: 3.10.06, klee@vanguard.edu, Colossians 2.8

14. Summary A logical fallacy is simply poor logic. The presence of logical fallacies may weaken a writing project. It’s often useful to point out logical fallacies as weak points in your opponent’s argument. Logical fallacies are usually forms of inaccurate assumptions, bias, jumps in thought, & overgeneralizations.

15. Credits Logical Fallacies by Dr. Karen Lee, M.F.A., Ph.D. The Writing Center @ Vanguard University of Southern California Version Date: 3.10.06, klee@vanguard.edu, Colossians 2.8

16. Propaganda Devices Webster’s dictionary defines propaganda as “a systematic effort to promote a particular cause or point of view.” Thus by definition, propaganda is not evil or deceptive. However, some of the techniques used are questionable because they appeal primarily to our emotions rather than to our intellect.

17. Slogans The slogan is equally effective in advertising and political campaigns. In the latter, it usually takes the form of a chant that can unite large crowds into one common emotion.

18. Name-Calling Name-calling is a device used widely in political and ideological battles as well as in commercial advertising campaigns. It tries to make us form a judgment without examining the evidence on which it should be based. Propagandists appeal to our instincts of hate and fear. They do this by giving bad names to those individuals, groups, nations, races, or consumer products that they would like us to condemn or reject.

19. Glittering Generalities Glittering generalities are broad, widely accepted ideals and virtuous words that are used to sell a point of view. Like name-calling, glittering generalities urge us to accept and approve something without examination.

20. Transfer Some advertisements use symbols of authority, prestige, and respect that arouse emotions to sell a cause, a candidate, or a consumer product through the process of subconscious transfer or association.

21. Testimonial A testimonial is an endorsement of a product or an individual by celebrities or other well-respected persons.

22. Plain Folks The plain-folks device creates the impression that the advertisers or political candidates are just ordinary folks like you and me.

23. Card Stacking Card stacking is the technique by which facts, illustrations, and statements are carefully selected to make the maximum impact and sometimes give misleading impressions. The cliché that “statistics don’t lie, but you can lie with statistics” applies to this technique.

24. Bandwagon The bandwagon device is based on the idea that “if everybody else is doing it, so should you.” “Jump on the bandwagon,” “follow the crowd,” “be the first in your neighborhood,” and “don’t throw your vote away by voting for a loser” are clichés associated with this device. The psychology behind this technique makes political polling important at election time. The fact that each candidate needs to project the image that he or she is a winner often leads to some conflicting polling results.

25. Sex Appeal We don’t ordinarily think of sex as a propaganda device, but it sells products in many ways. In recent years, emotional appeals based on sex have been used more and more in product advertising. Sex appeal is used to stimulate emotions and sell consumer products to both sexes.

26. Music The last device in our list is also seldom thought of as a propaganda device, yet it is one of the most effective techniques in radio and television commercials. Music is an excellent tool for creating specific moods, and it can be used effectively for product identification.

27. Credits www.chipola.edu/ACE/tyler/rea%201205/ mather_art_chap10.ppt

28. Logos, Ethos, Pathos

29. Aristotle’s Three Ways to Persuade Logos Ethos Pathos

30. Who is Aristotle? Aristotle (384-322 BCE) is the most notable product of the educational program devised by Plato. Aristotle wrote on an amazing range of subjects, from logic, philosophy, and ethics to physics, biology, psychology, politics, and rhetoric.

31. What is rhetoric? Rhetoric is the art of persuasion. The goal of persuasion is to change others’ point of view or to move others to take action.

32. What is logos, ethos, and pathos? Logos = Logic Ethos = Ethics, Image Pathos = Emotions (Passion)

33. Logos, Ethos, Pathos Using logos, ethos, and pathos will help you to master the art of persuasion. Through language, you will be able to change the point of view of others! Through language, you will be able to motivate others to take action!

34. Logos Logos is an argument based on facts, evidence and reason. Using logos means appealing to the readers’ sense of what is logical.

35. Ethos Ethos is an argument based on character. Using ethos means the writer or speaker appeals to the audience’s sense of ethical behavior. The writer or speaker presents him or herself to the audience as credible, trustworthy, honest and ethical. “I am an ethical expert, so believe what I say.”

36. Pathos Pathos = argument based on feelings Using pathos means appealing to readers’ emotions and feelings.

37. Symbols for Logos, Ethos and Pathos Logos = Head Ethos = Hand Pathos = Heart

38. Review Logos = logic Logos is an argument based on facts, evidence and reason. Using logos means appealing to the readers’ sense of what is logical.

39. Review Ethos = Ethics / Image Ethos is an argument based on character. The writer or speaker presents him or herself to the reader as credible, trustworthy, honest and ethical.

40. Review Pathos = argument based on feelings Using pathos means appealing to readers’ emotions and feelings.

41. Pathos, Ethos, Logos

42. Credits http://www.mvla.net/teachers/PatrickH/Co mp%20World%20Lit/Lists/Comp%20World %20Lit%20Calendar/Attachments/33/Logo s%20Ethos%20Pathos%20E32007.ppt#30

43. Rhetorical Devices

44. Alliteration Repetition of the initial consonant sounds beginning several words in sequence. –"....we shall not falter, we shall not fail." (President G.W. Bush Address to Congress following 9-11-01 Terrorist Attacks.) –"Let us go forth to lead the land we love.“ (President J. F. Kennedy, Inaugural 1961) –"Veni, vidi, vici.“ (Julius Caesar - “I came, I saw, I conquered”)

45. Assonance Repetition of the same vowel sounds in words close to each other. –"Thy kingdom come, thy will be done.“ (The Lord's Prayer) –“Its quick soft silver bell beating, beating…” (Karl Shapiro, “Auto Wreck”)

46. Anadiplosis (“Doubling back") The rhetorical repetition of one or several words; specifically, repetition of a word that ends one clause at the beginning of the next. –"Men in great place are thrice servants: servants of the sovereign or state; servants of fame; and servants of business.“(Francis Bacon)

47. Anaphora The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses or lines. –"We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. We shall never surrender." (British Prime Minister Winston Churchill)

48. Antithesis Opposition, or contrast of ideas or words in a balanced or parallel construction. –"Extremism in defense of liberty is no vice, moderation in the pursuit of justice is no virtue." (Barry Goldwater - Republican Candidate for President 1964) –"Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more". (Brutus in: " Julius Caesar" by William Shakespeare)

49. Aporia Expression of doubt (often feigned) by which a speaker appears uncertain as to what he should think, say, or do. –"Then the steward said within himself, 'What shall I do?" (Bible: Luke 16)

50. Apostrophe A turn from the general audience to address a specific group or person or personified abstraction absent or present. –"For Brutus, as you know, was Caesar's angel. Judge, O you gods, how dearly Caesar loved him". (Mark Antony in Julius Caesar - William Shakespeare)

51. Asyndeton Lack of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words. –"We shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardships, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty." (J. F. Kennedy, Inaugural) –"But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground.“ (President Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address)

52. Cacophony Harsh joining of sounds – "We want no parlay with you and your grisly gang who work your wicked will." (British Prime Minister Winston Churchill - referring to Hitler.) –“A toad the power mower caught, Chewed and clipped of a leg, with a hobbling hop has got” ("The Death of a Toad" by Richard Wilbur)

53. Chiasmus Two corresponding pairs arranged not in parallels (A-B-A-B) but in inverted order (A-B-B- A); from shape of the Greek letter chi (X). –"Those gallant men will remain often in my thoughts and in my prayers always." (General Douglas MacArthur) –"Renown'd for conquest, and in council skill'd." (Marcus Tullius Cicero)

54. Catachresis A harsh metaphor involving the use of a word beyond its strict sphere. –"I listen vainly, but with thirsty ear." (General Douglas MacArthur, Farewell Address) –'Tis deepest winter in Lord Timon's purse” (Shakespeare, Timon of Athens)

55. Climax Arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in an order of ascending power. Often the last emphatic word in one phrase or clause is repeated as the first emphatic word of the next. –"One equal temper of heroic hearts, Made weak by time and fate, but strong in will To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield." (Tennyson, " Ulysses")

56. Euphemism Euphemism: substitution of an agreeable or at least non-offensive expression for one whose plainer meaning might be harsh or unpleasant.Euphemism Examples: Euphemisms for " stupid" A few fries short of a Happy Meal. A few beers short of a six-pack. One Fruit Loop shy of a full bowl. All foam, no beer. The cheese slid off his cracker.

57. Hyperbole Exaggeration for emphasis or for rhetorical effect. –"If you call me that name again, I'm going to explode!" –“I nearly died laughing.”

58. (Verbal) Irony Expression of something which is contrary to the intended meaning; the words say one thing but mean another. –“Yet Brutus says he was ambitious; And Brutus is an honourable man. “ (Shakespeare's Mark Antony in Julius Caesar)

59. Metaphor Implied comparison achieved through a figurative use of words; the word is used not in its literal sense, but in one analogous to it. –*Life's but a walking shadow; a poor player, That struts and frets his hour upon the stage. " (Shakespeare, Macbeth ) –“From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the continent.” (W. Churchill)

60. Oxymoron Apparent paradox achieved by the juxtaposition of words which seem to contradict one another. –“I must be cruel only to be kind.“ (Shakespeare, Hamlet) – "Hurts so good…“ (John Cougar Melancamp) – “Jumbo Shrimp”

61. Paradox An assertion seemingly opposed to common sense, but that may yet have some truth in it. –“What a pity that youth must be wasted on the young." (George Bernard Shaw)

62. Personification Attribution of personality to an impersonal thing. –“England expects every man to do his duty." (Lord Nelson) – The rose was a soft as a baby's skin – "Rise up and defend the Motherland" (Line from "Enemy at the Gates“)

63. Pleonasm Use of superfluous or redundant words, often enriching the thought. –No one, rich or poor, will be excepted. –Ears pierced while you wait! –I have seen no stranger sight since I was born.

64. Simile An explicit comparison between two things using 'like' or 'as'. –“My love is as a fever, longing still For that which longer nurseth the disease" (Shakespeare, Sonnet CXLVII) –“Reason is to faith as the eye to the telescope" (D. Hume) –“Let us go then, you and I, While the evening is spread out against the sky, Like a patient etherized upon a table" (T.S. Eliot, “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock”)

65. Syllepsis Use of a word with two others, with each of which it is understood differently. –“We must all hang together or assuredly we will all hang separately.” (Benjamin Franklin)

66. Tautology Repetition of an idea in a different word, phrase, or sentence. –"With malice toward none, with charity for all." (President Abraham Lincoln, Second Inaugural)

67. Work Cited Tomlinson, James. Rhetorical Devices. http://facstaff.bloomu.edu/jtomlins/rhetorical_devices.htm#top. 6/29/2006 http://facstaff.bloomu.edu/jtomlins/rhetorical_devices.htm#top