1. Creating a Model Answer ‘Using the pre-release material and your wider sociological knowledge, explain and evaluate the use of qualitative methods to research changing male roles within families (from low socio economic and ethnically diverse backgrounds).’(52) Remember this may not be the exact question in the exam and you may have to adapt your answer during the exam to fit the question asked. 45-50 minutes 4-5 sides hand written or 2 sides typed

2. Introduction Aims Using qualitative methods, Hauari and Hollingworth aimed…… To gain a between understanding of what ‘being a father’ means to parents and children. To explore the extent to which there is a ‘common model’ of fatherhood that applies to families in deprived areas in a range of ethnic groups, in a modern multicultural Britain. Apply to the question Qualitative methods are good to research the changing male role within families because……. The role of ‘the father’ within the context of changing masculinities is a complex subject. The experience of fatherhood will vary by ethnicity so it was appropriate to get a range of different ethnic groups.

3. Paragraph 1 - Theory Qualitative methods to research changing male roles within families would be preferred by…… Interpretivists. They would believe that..... The semi structured/interview element as allows for greater verstehen - Subjective meanings and feelings. In-depth questioning conducted at homes for 45 minutes (children) - 2 hours (parents). Time use diaries - Descriptions of activities/interactions In-depth data, conversational flow allowing for rapport and ‘own’ account from respondents. However, Qualitative methods to research changing male roles within families wouldn’t be liked by…… Positivists. They would think that quantitative methods are more useful because..... They are more objective/scientific meaning they will be reliable and easy to repeat and conduct again. The standardised nature of objective methods means control over variables. By repeating the study patterns and trends can be gained, correlations can be made to determine social facts.

4. Paragraph 2 – Validity Strengths Qualitative methods are the best to research changing male roles within families because they are high in validity. Definition – Validity is where the data provides a true picture of the social reality of those being researched. Important when researching a personal issue such as fatherhood. STRENGTHSCONTEXT APPLY TO THE QUESTION Using diaries to trigger memory and interviews were recorded Parents are busy so the use of the diary means that they do not need to remember back to activities that they’ve done. As the interviews were completed in homes where interruptions and distractions are likely, the recording means that information was accurately recorded. Therefore the use of qualitative methods to research changing male roles within families because it is high in validity. In-depth Fatherhood and fathers roles are complex and individualised to families, the in-depth nature of the interview allows meanings to be explored. The interview was completed in people’s homes making it easier for a rapport to be developed - Particularly appropriate for children. Insight The time-use diary was completed to include a variety of times (weekdays, weekends and school holidays) making it a more accurate reflection of time spent on interactions between fathers and their children which could change during days the dad is not working - The description would also give an impression of the quality of the interaction.

5. Paragraph 3 – Validity Weaknesses WEAKNESSESCONTEXT APPLY TO THE QUESTION Operationalising Do all people involved share the same understanding of ‘fatherhood’? Especially the children involved in the study, they may also lack the ability to reflect on parenting roles. Therefore the use of quantitative methods is not useful to research changing male roles within families because it is low in validity. Honesty True Insight? Interviewer effect/ Interview bias Some fathers may want to make a good impression (especially as we can assume that the researchers are from a different cultural background) - Social desirability. Effect of interview being filmed - Fathers may change their behaviour/wording regarding discussed subjects. Behaviour may also change as a result of keeping the time-diary - May record things inaccurately and change behaviour/interactions. The period over which a diary is to be kept needs to be long enough to capture the behaviour or events Parents are busy so the quality in which the time-use diary is filled in. It is unlikely that respondents do it immediately after the activity so memory is still an issue. Parents get bored/forget to fill it in after 3 days? 8 days may not present a true picture of the social reality as it may not be long enough to make a judgement. ETHICS Ethics - This was a very sensitive area to be asking about. It may raise issues about neglectful parenting or disputes between partners over the sharing of tasks - May raise sexist attitudes towards gender roles and expectations. As children were involved the ethical guidelines set by the BSA are stricter - not to cause harm - Wording in interviews would have to be considered. However qualitative methods are not the best to research changing male roles within families because they can be low in validity.

6. Paragraph 4 - Reliability Qualitative methods are the best to research changing male roles within families because they can sometimes be reliable. Definition – Reliability is the ability to repeat the same research and gain the same or similar results. Important if need to conduct research with a ‘range of ethnic groups’ or in more than one area. STRENGTHSCONTEXT APPLY TO THE QUESTION The semi- structured nature of the interview and they were recorded The structured aspect of the interviews - Leads to some form of format that could be followed if the research were to be repeated. The specifics (characteristics) of the demographic can repeat in different areas/with different families. This method is easily repeatable - The interview questions/structured aspect could be accessed again to create a research model. Therefore the use of qualitative methods to research changing male roles within families because it is high in reliability. Operationalising and Thematic analysis Ethnicity is clearly defined so similar sample could be accessed in the future - ‘Pakistani’, ‘White British’, ‘Black Caribbean’ and ‘Black African’. Deprived Areas - They use the ‘Index of Multiple Deprivation’ for this so are clear on how this has been defined The coding scheme used for the time-use diaries allowing a thematic analysis - Can check which themes may recur/repeat Clarify understanding and use of the diaries in the interview (double check for consistency) The reliability of the diaries and the information recorded can be checked across different areas/families who will all be interviewed about their individual ‘activities’.

7. Paragraph 5 - Reliability WEAKNESSESCONTEXT APPLY TO THE QUESTION Operationalising ‘Fathering’ - People may define this role differently and the expectations of behaviour that go with this. Families will vary on what counts as ‘childcare activities’ - reliability is low if people do not have the same clear understanding. Therefore the use of qualitative methods is not useful to research changing male roles within families because it is low in reliability. The in-depth nature of the interview Meaning that the structure is more fluid - It would be easy for both the respondents and the researchers to go off-topic as they were conducted in own homes with lots of distractions, not a controlled environment. The descriptive part of the time-use diaries The participants may have taken a range of meanings from instructions given on what to discuss in the diaries - A range of material focusing on different issues/themes may have been recorded – each family will take their own approach as conducted in private at home. The use of purposive sampling is hard to verify The subjects were selected because of a shared characteristic - Researchers mention the Index of Multiple Deprivation and the types of ethnic background are from but share no other details on where the participants were accessed from - No sample frame would make it difficult to repeat this sampling method in the same way. However qualitative methods are not the best to research changing male roles within families because they are low in reliability.

8. Paragraph 6 - Representativeness Qualitative methods are the best to research changing male roles within families because they can be high in representativeness. Definition – Representativeness is the extent to which the sample selected is a fair reflection of the target population. Important when trying to find a common-model of fatherhood across a range of different ethnic groups. STRENGTHSCONTEXT APPLY TO THE QUESTION Diverse range of ethnic groups used Pakistani, White British, Black Caribbean and Black African Therefore the use of quantitative methods is not useful to research changing male roles within families because it is low in representativeness. Different regions included The use of the Index of Multiple Deprivation means that areas were suitably selected - North of England, Inner London, Midlands, North West and Greater London North/South divide - Means that the differences in working class lifestyles in these areas was addressed. Age range of children interviewed was large, 7-18 Analyse difference of fathers role for young children and teenagers.

9. Paragraph 7 - Representativeness WEAKNESSESCONTEXT APPLY TO THE QUESTION Use of purposive sampling The nature of this sampling method means that the sample selected could have been biased in order to ‘suit the needs’ of the research findings. Therefore the use of quantitative methods to research changing male roles within families because it is high in representativeness. Limit to social class They only looked at deprived areas - Therefore this is not representative of fathering across other classes. Was there consideration of alternative family types such as same sex or step families? - This means that not all families from ‘deprived areas’ would have been accounted for. Limit to ethnicity Not all ethnic groups are included in the research and the proportions do not accurately reflect society as a whole. Only one child in each family interviewed Fathering role may change with children’s position in the family - Children of different ages require different amount of interaction/independence (teenager very different to a dependent child). However qualitative methods are not the best to research changing male roles within families because they are low in representativeness.

10. Paragraph 8 - Generalisability Qualitative methods are the best to research changing male roles within families because they can be high in generalizability. Definition – Generalisability is the ability to make claims about the target population from the research findings. Important when trying to apply a common model of fatherhood to different groups. WEAKNESSESCONTEXTAPPLY TO THE QUESTION Regions Only London, the Midlands and the North - This means that the research can’t be used to generalise further i.e. to South East (more affluent areas). Therefore the use of quantitative methods is not useful to research changing male roles within families because it is low in generalisability. Small sample Due to the time-consuming nature of qualitative research methods the findings can’t be generalised further to families in the South or all ethnic groups. STRENGTHSCONTEXTAPPLY TO THE QUESTION Range of ethnic groups and regions This means that the results can possibly be generalised to deprived families in certain areas of England. Therefore the use of quantitative methods to research changing male roles within families because it is high in generalisability. However qualitative methods are not the best to research changing male roles within families because they are low in generalisability.

11. Conclusion Apply to the Question Overall this essay has shown that qualitative methods are not the most useful method to research changing male roles within families. Because…… Improvements Using another method to create a larger body of data. Methodological Pluralism? Using another method to reach a wider/more representative sample. Expanding the research area to ensure regional and class diversity.