1. Quick review and some new things…
Qualitative Research
Quick review and some new things…
BREAK DOWN
Lesson 1 – General Qualitative Stuff
Lesson 2 – Observations & Case Studies
Lesson 3 – Interviews
Lesson 4 – Inductive Content Analysis
FORMAT
Readings
Kahoot
Theory
Application

2. Qualitative Research Methodology Outline
Theory and practice in qualitative research
Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative data.
Explain strengths and limitations of a qualitative approach to research.
To what extent can findings be generalized from qualitative studies?
Discuss ethical considerations in qualitative research.
Discuss sampling techniques appropriate to qualitative research (for example, purposive sampling, snowball sampling).
Explain effects of participant expectations and researcher bias in qualitative research.
Explain the importance of credibility in qualitative research.
Explain the effect of triangulation on the credibility/trustworthiness of qualitative research.
Explain reflexivity in qualitative research.
Interviews
Evaluate semi‑structured, focus group and narrative interviews.
Discuss considerations involved before, during and after an interview (for example, sampling method, data recording, traditional versus postmodern transcription, debriefing).
Explain how researchers use inductive content analysis (thematic analysis) on interview transcripts.
Observations
Evaluate participant, non‑participant, naturalistic, overt and covert observations.
Discuss considerations involved in setting up and carrying out an observation (for example, audience effect, Hawthorne effect, disclosure).
Discuss how researchers analyse data obtained in observational research.
Case studies
Evaluate the use of case studies in research.
Explain how a case study could be used to investigate a problem in an organization or group (for example, a football team, a school, a family).
Discuss the extent to which findings can be generalized from a single case study.

3. Theory and practice in qualitative research
The big 6:
Reflexivity
Credibility
Triangulation
Transferability
Dependability
Confirmability
Vocabulary Words used in Qualitative Research

4. Procedure 2 mins to think and get ready – THINK (2 mins)
Number ___ - explains his/her thoughts while others LISTEN (1.5 mins)
Number ___ - Adds to explanation of first person while others LISTEN (1.5 mins)
Number ___ - Be ready to SHARE with the class what others and you discussed/thought (1.5 mins)

5. Reflexivity
Reflexivity is the awareness of how the researcher’s involvement (bias) in the study will have an effect on the outcome (results) of the study.
It is important for the experimenter to be aware of/know how their own true self in turn may affect research.

6. Reflexivity
Another definition to consider: A process which challenges the researcher to clearly and transparently consider how his or her own preconceived ideas have influenced the outcomes.
Research agenda
Assumptions
Subject location(s)
Personal beliefs (Ethnic/Cultural/Religious…etc)
Emotions and mood
You should refer to this as a process of doing or having reflexive practice within research…
Similar to researcher bias, but not quite the same because it is a published admission of engaging in the process.

7. Scenarios 2
Asian female researcher investigating the effects of culture on education 1
Older researcher investigating the effect of technology on teenagers 3
Young researcher investigates the effects of violence on self esteem 4
White male researcher investigating the equality of job opportunities

8. Triangulation
Explain the effect of triangulation on the credibility/trustworthiness of qualitative research.
Triangulation is the application and combination of several research methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon.
There are four basic types of triangulation.
Data triangulation
Investigator triangulation
Theory triangulation
Methodological triangulation
Multiple triangulation involves a combination of the four basic types.

9. Triangulation Data Triangulation Investigator Triangulation
Theory Triangulation
Methodological Triangulation

10. Credibility DEFINITION
Does the participant(s) think the results are believable?
Has the researcher undertaken sensible measures to create an objective study?
Establish that the results of qualitative research are credible or believable from the perspective of the participant in the research.
Since the purpose of qualitative research is to describe or understand the phenomena of interest from the participant's eyes, the participants are the only ones who can legitimately judge the credibility of the results.

11. Credibility Credibility HOW TO ACHIEVE
The researcher must leave a ‘decision trail’ of information that documents the study from design, collection, analysis and interpretation of data.
This must then be linked back to participant expectations in order to present a true image of the topic of investigation.
Credibility includes ideas such as reflexivity, researcher bias, trustworthiness and triangulation under its umbrella.
It is the equivalent of internal validity in collecting quatitative data
Credibility
Trustworthiness
Triangulation
Researcher Bias
Reflexivity

12. Transferability
Refers to whether or not a study can be applied to settings outside of its original context.
Another way to consider how if/when findings can and should be generalized.
SAME – Inferential Generalization (applying the findings to settings outside of the study)
DIFFERENT – Representational Generalization (applying the findings to a different population outside of the study).
DIFFERENT – Theoretical Generalization (applying the findings to different theories or further develop other theories).

13. Dependability
Experimenter/researchers must acknowledge what variables exist in the research context and how they might of affected the research.
It is important to note that most qualitative data is an attempt to choose a specific population and propose/examine a specific context or theory.
By design, most qualitative data is context specific and NOT intended to be generalized.
DIFFERENT than Quantitative - in qualitative data a study cannot be expected to yield the same results each time, even in an exact replication of the study. - due to multiple factors in the environment and in individuals.
Researchers consider the ‘tools and instruments’ used in their qualitative approach and report on how these instruments may have influenced the data obtained.
In this sense, dependability is the counter-balance to reliability in quantitative data.

14. Confirmability
Researchers should discuss the potential subjectivity and look for ways in which similar studies have yielded opposing results.
This can then be discussed and analyzed in a way which considers the ability to generalize the findings of a specific set of results.
Confirmability is in many ways an extension of Dependability…almost as if the idea of Dependability were tested and reported on as a process.
Again, if the goal of collecting qualitative data is to examine and consider all of the above in relation to a specific population (and to understand a potential relationship, not to attribute causality), then subjectivity is paramount.
The process of considering this subjectivity is called Confirmability.
Confirmability is the equivalent albeit opposite of Objectivity in quantitative data.

15. Theory and practice in qualitative research
The big 6:
Reflexivity
Credibility
Triangulation
Transferability
Dependability
Confirmability
Vocabulary Words used in Qualitative Research

16. Theory and practice in qualitative research
To what extent can findings be generalized from qualitative studies?
A generalization is a decision or judgement about how widely the findings of a study can be applied to the population from which the sample was drawn.
How can generalizations from qualitative research be made?
According to Lewis and Richie (2003):
Inferential Generalization (applying the findings to settings outside of the study)
Representational Generalization (applying the findings to a different population outside of the study).
Theoretical Generalization (applying the findings to different theories or further develop other theories).
Can/should use the BIG 6 to develop this…

17. Some practice – If you interviewed a sample of 10 participants of the target population…
To what extent can findings be generalized from qualitative studies?
Inferential Generalization (applying the findings to settings outside of the study)
Representational Generalization (applying the findings to a different population outside of the study).
Theoretical Generalization (applying the findings to different theories or further develop other theories).
Are teenagers less sexually active now than ten years ago? Are men prejudiced about women in managerial positions? How effective has the IB program been in local secondary schools? What causes children to be truant from school?

18. Theory and practice in qualitative research
Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative data.
Qualitative Data
Qualitative methods are ways of collecting data which are concerned with describing meaning, rather than with drawing statistical inferences. What qualitative methods (e.g. case studies and interviews) lose on reliability they gain in terms of validity. They provide a more in depth and rich description.
Quantitative Data
This type of data is often collected in experiments, manipulated and statistically analysed. Quantitative data can be represented visually in graphs, histograms, tables and charts.

19. Theory and practice in qualitative research
Discuss sampling techniques appropriate to qualitative research.
The participants (or subjects) which are to be used are called a sample. To obtain sample researchers must first identify the target population. This is the whole group with which the study is concerned.
Psychologists try not to use a biased sample -that is a sample that is not representative. Use, context, strengths and weaknesses should be identified when mentioning sampling techniques…don’t just list the, USE them.
Random sampling
Systematic sampling
Stratified sampling
Opportunity sampling
Self-selected samples
Snowball samples

20. Theory and practice in qualitative research
Explain effects of participant expectations and researcher bias in qualitative research.
Participant Expectations
Or demand characteristics - features of an experiment which help participants work out what is expected of them, and consequently lead them to behave in artificial ways.
Research Bias
Researcher expectancies happen when the observer comes to the investigation with an inbuilt bias that influences his/her interpretation of the data. Candidates should indicate that this means that the research findings are likely to go in a predetermined direction.

21. Observation Participant Non-Participant Naturalistic Controlled Overt
Process of observing (watching and analyzing) behavior of an individual or a group to get first-hand information
Participant
Non-Participant
Naturalistic
Controlled
Overt
Covert

22. Observation
SCENARIO
Investigating street gang violence in New York City
To consider:
Method to use (overt, covert, participant…)
Ethical consideration (consent, debriefing…)
Sampling method (stratified, snowball, opportunity…)
Data recording (field notes, video, audio…)
Observer characteristics (match to target group)
Degree of involvement (mostly for covert + participant type)
Objectivity of researcher (if long, more chances of subjectivity)
Analysis of data (inductive vs conductive data analysis)

23. Observation
SCENARIO
Investigating street gang violence in New York City

24. Case Studies Usually used to investigate specific problems
In-depth investigation of human experience called ‘a case’. Aim is to understand the phenomena from the perspective of the participant.
Usually used to investigate specific problems
Used to investigate sensitive topics
How much can we generalize?
Inferential generalization
Theory generalization
Representational generalization

25. * * Interviews Semi-structured interview Focus group interview
Meeting with a participant either face-to-face or otherwise to ask questions and record their answers in order to collect information on a given topic. *
Semi-structured interview
Some questions are prepared beforehand but allows flexibility
Focus group interview
Group of people are interviewed at the same time
Interaction between interviewer and among the group
Narrative interview
One primary question is asked to start the narration from P
Other questions can be asked, but only for precision *
Structured interview – all questions are prepared beforehand (cannot be modified)
Unstructured interview – no question are prepared beforehand (improvised)

26. Interviews Method of interview Interviewer Sampling Data Recording
BEFORE
DURING
AFTER
Method of interview
Interviewer
Sampling
Data Recording
Transcription
Ethics
Reflexivity
Establish rapport
Data recording
Active listening
Professional approach
Debriefing
Confidentiality
Credibility check
Specific consent

27. Interview Topic: Vacation’s effect on happiness TASK
You’ll be conducting an interview
READ the two following articles on moodle
“How vacations affect your happiness”
“Vacationers happier, but most not happier after a holiday”
Prepare a specific type of interview
Use the BEFORE to prepare for this
You will need to record and script your interview
Post it on the moodle dropbox when you’re ready

28. Approaches
Inductive
Qualitative
Deductive
Quantitative

29. Inductive Content Analysis
Analyzing collected data to identify themes and categories to then develop new theories.
Collecting data (observation, interview…)
Preparing the data for content analysis (transcription)
Identification of initial themes and categories (coding)
Analysis for further themes and categories (higher and lower themes)
Checking credibility (other coders, researchers, participant)
Structuring the emerging themes and categories (graphing, summary table…)
Inferences of links between themes and categories
Develop theories from emerging links

30. Inductive Content Analysis
Analyzing collected data to identify themes and categories to then develop new theories.

31. Inductive Content Analysis

32. Application – Inductive Content Analysis
Read the WHOLE transcription
Identify initial themes
Identify themes within themes
Credibility check
Organize your themes (higher and lower)
For each, support with a quotation
Build a summary table
Check for links between themes.
Develop a THEORY
Final credibility check (participant)

33. Check Learning Outcomes
Nov 2013
Describe how the researchers in this study could use inductive content analysis (thematic analysis) on the interview transcripts.