1. Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Enger & Smith Environmental Science A Study of Interrelationships Eleventh Edition Chapter 2 Environmental Ethics

2. The Earth as seen from space.

3. Outline  The Call for a New Ethic  Environmental Ethics  Environmental Attitudes  Environmental Justice  Societal Environmental Ethics  Corporate Environmental Ethics

4. Outline  Individual Environmental Ethics  Do We Consume Too Much?  Personal Choices  Global Environmental Ethics

5. The Call for a New Ethic  A lot of what we do on our home planet connects us to something or somebody else.  Managing the interactions between people and their environment has been transformed by unprecedented increases in the rate, scale, and complexity of the interactions.  Across the world, thousands of people believe that today’s environmental challenges must be met with a new and more robust environmental ethic.

6. 6 Views of Nature  Many people see little value in an undeveloped river  Feel it should not be left flowing in a natural state  For that through history rivers have always been controlled to provide power, irrigation, and navigation at the expense of natural world.  Some argue not to use these resources would be wasteful.  In US pacific northwest there is a conflict over the value of old-growth forests, timber (3s will die anyway) vs recreation and scenery value (all living things that make up forest have a value & we destroy something that took hundreds of years to develop which might not be replaced).

7.  At 1 time pollution was local, temporary, today can affect several countries and generations. Many people believe we have entered an era characterized by global change stemming from human-environment interdependence. They argue self conscious, intelligent management of earth is one of the greatest challenges now, we need a new envl ethic.

8. Environmental Ethics  Ethics is one branch of philosophy; it seeks to define what is right and what is wrong.  Ethics can help us understand what actions are wrong and why they are wrong.  Not all cultures share the same ethical commitments. Cultural relativism in ethics acknowledges these differences exist.  Despite the presence of some differences, there are many cases in which ethical commitments can and should be globally agreed upon.

9.  Morals are different Reflect predominant feelings of a culture about ethical issues. Ex. Is unethical to kill someone but when there is a war, people except necessity of killing enemy and it becomes a moral thing to do even though ethics says killing is wrong.

10. Ethics and Laws  Ideally, the laws of a nation or community should match the ethical commitments of those living there.  In the case of environmental issues, care needs to be taken over when it is appropriate to legislate something and when action should be left to the individual’s sense of right and wrong.  A strong personal ethical commitment can help guide behavior in the absence of supporting laws.

11. Conflicting Ethical Positions  Sometimes an individual’s ethical commitments can conflict with each other. A mayor might have an ethical commitment to preserving land in a city but also have an ethical commitment to bringing in jobs associated with construction of a new factory.  In many cases, what is good for the environment is also good for people. While forest protection may reduce logging jobs, a healthier forest might lead to new jobs in recreation, fisheries, and tourism.

12.  Envl issues need consideration of both.  Ex. Bec there is enough food to feed everyone, it is unethical to allow some starve while others have more than enough.  Many developed countries don’t feel morally bound to share what they have.  Ethics and morals are not the same always. It is difficult to define what is right or wrong.

13.  We have to explore envl issues from several points of view before taking stand.  Environmental ethics is a topic of applied ethics that examines the moral basis of environmental responsibility.  We need to be envly responsible. So envl ethics Focuses on moral foundation of environmental responsibility and how far such responsibility extends.

14. The Greening of Religion  Environmental issues were considered to be the concern of scientists, lawyers, and policy makers. What is our moral responsibility toward future generations?  The natural world figures prominently in the world’s major religions.  Religious leaders recognize that religions, as shapers of culture and values, can make major contributions to the rethinking of our current environmental impasse.

15. Three Philosophical Approaches to Environmental Ethics  Anthropocentrism (human-centered) This view holds that all environmental responsibility is derived from human interests. –Assumes that only humans are morally significant. –Assumes nature is an instrument for human manipulation. –Since envn is crucial to human well being & survival, we have duty to protect it. They are there to make life enjoyable for human

16.  Biocentrism (life-centered) All life forms have an inherent right to exist. Some give species a hierarchy of values, animal more important than plants, others determine the rights of species based on the harm they do to humans ex killing pests such as rats, others say each indv organism has a basic right to survive.  Ecocentrism This view maintains that the environment deserves direct moral consideration, not consideration derived from human or animal interests. Envn itself is on a moral par with humans.

17. Three Philosophical Approaches to Environmental Ethics  “A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise….We abuse land because we regard it as a commodity belonging to us. When we see land as a community to which we belong, we may begin to use it with love and respect.” —Aldo Leopold A Sand County Almanac, 1949

18. Three Philosophical Approaches to Environmental Ethics Philosophical approaches

19. 19 Other Philosophical Approaches  Ecofeminism: connection between how society treat women and how treat env  Social ecology: social hierarchies are directly connected to behaviors destructing env  Deep ecology: a new spiritual sense of oneness w the Earth is essential for healthy relationship w/ env  Envl pragmatism: focuses on policy rather than ethics, emphasis on ethical theories unhelpful  Envl aesthetics: study of how appreciate beauty in the natural world  Animal rights/welfare: asserts that humans have a strong moral obligation to nonhuman animals, not an envl position

20. Environmental Attitudes  Because ethical commitments pull in different directions at different times, it is often easier to talk in terms of environmental attitudes or approaches.  The three most common attitudes/approaches are: Development approach Preservation approach Conservation approach

21. Environmental Attitudes Development, preservation, and conservation are different attitudes toward nature. These attitudes reflect a person’s ethical commitments.

22. Development  This approach is the most anthropocentric. It assumes the human race is, and should be, master of nature. It assumes that the Earth and its resources exist solely for our benefit and pleasure. This approach is reinforced by the capitalist work ethic. This approach thinks highly of human creativity and holds that continual economic growth is a moral ideal for society. Humans should always be busy creating change. –Bigger, better, and faster represents “progress”. Which itself is good. –This philosophy is strengthened by the idea that if it can be done it should be done. Here nature has only instrumental value: for human beings to utilize economically

23. Preservation  This approach is the most ecocentric. It holds that nature has intrinsic value apart from human uses. –Preservationists such as John Muir, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, and Walt Whitman articulated their positions differently, but all viewed nature as a refuge from economic activity, not as a resource for it.  Some preservationists wish to keep large parts of nature intact for aesthetic or recreational reasons (anthropocentric principles).

24.  Nature is Seen as a refuge from economic activities, not as a resource for it.  Presevationinists have diverse reasons for wanting to preserve nature range from aesthetic to scientific.  Some have a reverence for life and respect the right of all creatures to live.

25. 25 They believe Human species depend on & has much to learn from nature & environment. Rare and endangered species and ecosystems as well as the more common ones, must be preserved bec of their known or assumed long range, practical utility so natural diversity, variety, complexity, and wilderness are superior to humanized uniformity simplicity and domesticity. –They want Preserve nature for future generations. –Nature is sacred whether or not resources are scarce.

26. Conservation  This approach finds a balance between unrestrained development and preservationism.  Conservationism promotes human well-being but considers a wider range of long-term human goods in its decisions about environmental management.  Many of the ideas in conservationism have been incorporated into an approach known as sustainable development.

27.  It is related to preservationist view but extends rational consideration to the entire earth.  it recognizes the desirability of decent living standards but it Works toward a balance between resource use and availability.  It stresses that Rapid, uncontrolled growth in population & economics is ultimately self-defeating.

28. Sustainable Development  Sustainable Development is a middle ground that seeks to promote development while still preserving the ecological health of the landscape.

29. 29 Environmental Justice  In 1982 a proposed PCB (polycorbonated biphenyls) landfill in Warren county, N Carolina was protested by residents of an African American community near the planned facility.  Argued that local officials had been practicing a form of envnl racism by disproportionately locating hazardous waste treatment storage and disposal facilities in areas occupied by minorities.

30. 30  Some argued bec of poor representation in political circles, those were easiest places for such facilities.  Granting the permit by EPA for this site brought nationwide protests.  In response president Clinton issued an executive order in 1994 mandating that all federal agencies make envl justice part of their mission.

31. Environmental Justice  In 1998, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defined environmental justice as fair treatment, meaning: “No group of people, including racial, ethnic, or socioeconomic groups, should bear a disproportionate share of the negative environmental consequences resulting from industrial, municipal, and commercial operations or the execution of federal, state, local, and tribal programs and policies.” Environmental justice is closely related to civil rights. According to this definition deliberate discrimination not need to be involved. But difficulty arises in defining what to be measured and what should be the standard of comparison

32. Environmental Justice The direct action in Warren County, NC marked the birth of the environmental justice movement in the U.S.

33. Environmental Justice  Studies show that the affluent members of society generate most of the waste, while the impoverished members tend to bear most of the burden of this waste.

34. 34 Environmental Justice  In the United States, waste generation is directly correlated with per capita income, but few toxic waste sites are located in affluent suburbs.  Waste facilities are often located in communities that have high % of poor, elderly, young and minority residents.  Often such facilities are deliberately sited in these communities bec they are seen as providing the least resistance and cheaper land costs.  Envl justice extend beyond location of toxic waste.

35. 35  Exposure to harmful pesticides & toxic agricultural substances is major health issue in hired farm workers & native American w high fish consumption from polluted areas.  Historically, the environmental movement has been a concern of middle-class whites, but there is a growing level of activism by people of color.  Minorities’ participation have pushed the plight of their communities to the forefront and brought a new perspective to the envnl movement.

36. Environmental Justice  Environmental justice encompasses a wide range of issues, including: Where to place hazardous and polluting facilities Transportation Safe housing, lead poisoning, and water quality Access to recreation Exposure to noise pollution Access to environmental information Hazardous waste cleanup Exposure to natural disasters (e.g., Hurricane Katrina)

37. Societal Environmental Ethics  Society: A composition of a great variety of people with diverse viewpoints, a set of ideas that reflect the prevailing attitudes of society that can be analyzed from an ethical point of view.  Western societies have long acted as if the earth has: Unlimited reserves of natural resources. An unlimited ability to assimilate wastes. A limitless ability to accommodate unchecked growth.  Until the last quarter of the 20 th century, economic growth and resource exploitation were the dominant orientations toward the natural environment in industrialized societies.  Things have now started to change.

38. Corporate Environmental Ethics  Corporations are legal entities designed to operate at a profit.  Although a corporation’s primary purpose is to generate a financial return for its shareholders, this does not mean that a corporation has no ethical obligations to the public or to the environment.  Shareholders can demand that their directors run the corporation ethically.

39. Waste and Pollution  The daily tasks of industry, such as procuring raw materials, manufacturing and marketing products, and disposing of wastes, cause large amounts of pollution.  The cost of controlling waste can be very important in determining a company’s profit margin.  Ethics are involved when a corporation cuts corners in production quality or waste disposal to maximize profit without regard for public or environmental well-being.

40. Corporate Environmental Ethics  Actions such as dumping waste in a river rather than installing a wastewater treatment facility or using expensive filters externalize the costs of doing business so that the public, rather than the corporation, pays those costs.  Because stockholders expect a return on an investment, corporations can be drawn toward making decisions based on short-term profitability rather than long-term benefit to the environment or society.

41. Corporate Environmental Ethics Corporate decision making.

42. Profitability and Power  Profit margin determines expansion.  The more demand exists for a company’s products (demand is stimulated through advertising), the more financial resources and power it has.  The greater a company’s power, the more influence it has over decision makers who can create conditions favorable to the company’s expansion plans.

43. Is There a Corporate Environmental Ethic?  Corporations face real choices between using environmentally friendly or harmful production processes, and are facing more pressure to adopt more environmentally and socially responsible practices.  The International Organization for Standardization (www.iso.org) has developed a program called ISO 14000 to encourage industries to adopt the most environmentally sensitive production practices.

44.  Nations of the world must confront the problem of corporate irresponsibility towered envn.  many important decision of government regarding envn is influenced by these executives who wield massive corporate power not by government or public.  There are different ethical approaches to the same ecological disaster.

45.  Ex 1989 Exxon Valdez oil spill, 1990 the Oil Protection Act (OPA) was passed to reduced envl impact of future oil spill & reduced it 94%, it required all large tankers have double hulls or be phased out of service by 2020.  Many oil carriers shifted their oil transport operations to lightly regulated oil barges and resulted in several barge oil spills including Jan 1996 in Rhode Islands Moonstone Bay and 1997 Galveston bay.

46. Is There a Corporate Environmental Ethic?  In 1989, the Coalition for Environmentally Responsible Economics (CERES) created a set of 10 environmental standards by which the business practices of member companies could be measured.  CERES companies pledge to voluntarily go beyond legal requirements to strive for environmental excellence through business practices that: 1.Protect the biosphere 2.Sustainably use natural resources

47. Is There a Corporate Environmental Ethic? 3.Reduce and dispose of waste safely 4.Conserve energy 5.Minimize environmental risks through safe technologies 6.Reduce the use, manufacture, and sale of products and services that cause environmental damage 7.Restore environmental damage 8.Inform the public of any health, safety, or environmental conditions

48. Is There a Corporate Environmental Ethic? 9.Consider environmental policy in management decisions 10.Report the results of an annual environmental audit to the public.  Today, over 70 companies publicly endorse the CERES Principles, including 13 Fortune 500 firms.  CERES coordinates an investor network with assets of over $2.7 trillion.

49. Is There a Corporate Environmental Ethic?  In 1997, The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) was established.  The mission of the GRI is to develop globally applicable guidelines for reporting on economic, environmental, and social performance, initially for corporations and eventually for any business, governmental, or nongovernmental organization.  Today, at least 2000 companies around the world voluntarily report information on their economic, environmental, and social policies, practices, and performance.

50. Green Business Concepts  It makes little sense to preserve the environment if preservation causes economic collapse.  Nor does it make sense to maintain industrial productivity at the cost of breathable air, clean water, wildlife, parks, and wilderness.  Natural capitalism is the idea that businesses can both expand their profits and take good care of the environment. The 3M Company is estimated to have saved up to $500 million over the last 20 years through its Pollution Prevention Pays (3P) program.

51. Green Business Concepts  Industrial ecology links industrial production and environmental quality.  It models industrial production and biological production, forcing industry to account for where waste is going. In nature, nothing is wasted or discarded; all materials ultimately get reused. A pollutant is a resource out of place.  Good environmental practices are good economics.

52. Individual Environmental Ethics  Ethical changes in society and business must start with individuals.  We must recognize that our individual actions have a bearing on environmental quality and that each of us bears some responsibility for the quality of the environment in which we live.

53.  As human population and economic activity grow, we are facing a # of envl problems that threaten not only human health and productivity of ecosystems but the very habitability of the globe.  Recognition of individual responsibility must lead to changes in individual behavior.  We have to realize that each one of us is responsible for envn.

54. Individual Environmental Ethics  Opinion polls conducted over the past decade have indicated Americans think environmental problems can often have a quick technological fix. Many individuals want the environment cleaned up, but do not want to make the necessary lifestyle changes to make that happen.

55. Do We Consume Too Much?  In 1994, Cairo international conference on population and development, representative from developing countries protested that an American baby consume 20X as much of worlds resources as an African or Indian baby through his life.  North Americans represent 5% of the world’s population. North Americans consume one-fourth of the world’s oil. They use more water and own more cars than anybody else. They waste more food than most people in sub- Saharan Africa eat.

56. Do We Consume Too Much?  Ecologist Paul Ehrlich argues the American lifestyle is driving the global ecosystem to the brink of collapse.  Economist Julian Simon argues human ingenuity, not resources, limits economic growth and lifestyles.

57.  In 1980, they wagered money on their views: Ehrlich predicted that world economic growth would make copper, chrome, nickel, tin, tungsten scarcer and so prices go up.  Simon figured human ingenuity would overcome scarcity and prices go down.  Ehrlich lost. in 1990 prices decreased  Ehrlich claimed was bec of a global recession that had reduced industrial demand for raw metals.  Simon argued that bec superior materials such as plastics, fiber optics and ceramics had been developed to replace them.

58. Do We Consume Too Much?  With question of consumption in mind lets look at how consumption could affect several areas in the future  Food Fertilizers, pesticides, and high-yield crops have more than doubled world food production in the past 40 years. The reason 840 milion people go hungry today & 6 mil children under age 5 die, is not that is not enough food but that they cant buy it. –Food distribution, not food production, is the cause of hunger. Not every body get a fair share

59. Energy  Oil If everybody on earth consumed as much oil as an average American, the world’s known oil reserves would not last through the current century. –Experts predict new technologies will avert a global energy crisis. Foresighted energy companies are looking ahead by investing in the technologies that will replace fossil fuels. Nuclear power, solar, wind, wave, and biomass technologies are meeting increasing proportions of national energy needs in other countries. –Although companies have developed cheaper ways to find oil and extract it, but still there is a limited amount of oil and we need alternative sources. –Solar, nuclear and wind power are possibilities but the mostly candidate is –Fuel Cells: a hydrogen powered battery that produces no pollution & water is only by-product.

60. Water  The world of the future may not need oil but w/o Water humanity could not last more than a few days. Currently humans use about half the planet’s accessible supply of renewable, fresh water. Unlike fossil fuels which can be replaced by other E sources there is no substitute for water. More than any other resource, water may limit consumerism in the next century. As World Bank Vice president, Ismail Serageldin predicted in the next century wars will be fought over water.

61. Wild Nature Every day in the U.S., between 1000 and 2000 hectares of farmland and natural areas are permanently lost to development. As more people around the world achieve the American dream, they will consume more resources, and generate more pollution. We will have increase in cutting tropic rain forest & more wilderness entombed under pavement, more mega cities like Tokyo and Sao Paulo will be build. More destruction of nature

62. Personal Choices  Individuals can make many lifestyle changes that significantly reduce their personal impact on the planet. Eating food produced locally, that is low on the food chain, and is grown with a minimum of chemical fertilizers and pesticides reduces the environmental impact of food production. Buying durable consumer products and reusing or repairing products with usable life reduces the raw materials that must be extracted from the ground.

63. Personal Choices Conserving energy at home and on the road can lessen the amount of fossil fuels used to support your lifestyle. Living in town rather than in the suburbs can reduce your impact on the environment. Lobbying for protection of wild areas and voting for officials who take environmental issues seriously are other ways you can contribute to a reduced environmental impact.

64. Global Environmental Ethics  Ecological degradation in any nation inevitably impinges on the quality of life in others.  Much of the current environmental crisis is rooted in the widening gap between rich and poor nations.  Environmental ethics suggests that we may have an obligation beyond minimizing the harm we cause to our fellow human citizens.  It suggests we may also have an obligation to minimize the harm we cause to the ecological systems and the biodiversity of the Earth itself.

65. Lifestyle and Environmental Impact

66. Will the nations of the world be able to set aside their political differences to work toward a global environmental course of action?

67. Summary  Different cultures put different values on the natural world and the individual organisms that compose it. Environmental ethics investigates the justifications for these different positions.  Three common attitudes toward nature are the development approach, the preservationist approach, and the conservationist approach.  Ethical obligations toward the environment are usually closely connected to ethical obligations towards people, particularly poor people and minority groups.

68. Summary  Recognition that there is an ethical obligation to protect the environment can be made by corporations, individuals, nations, and international bodies.  Natural capitalism and industrial ecology are ideas that promote ways of doing profitable business while also protecting the environment.  Global commitments to the protection of the environment are enormously important.