1. Environmental Sciences

2. Water and Soil Understanding and Conservation

3. Water  The most important compound on planet earth.  75% of the earth is covered by water, yet it is the most restrictive substance to life as we know it on planet earth.  As the world’s population increases, water will become more difficult to obtain.  Future wars will probably be fought over water.

4.  Of all the water on the earth, 97% is located in the oceans, 1% is frozen in glaciers and icecaps, and 2% is freshwater which can be used for human consumption.  In the U.S. we use about 100 million gallons of water daily. The major users of water are: agriculture, industry, hydroelectric plants, fish and wildlife, recreational users, and domestic users

5. Water Properties  Water has been called the universal solvent because as a material it dissolves or otherwise changes most other materials  The water cycle is the cycling of water between water sources, atmosphere, and surface areas

6. Water cycle  Precipitation is the release of moisture as rain or snow  Evaporation is the process during the water cycle when water changes from a liquid to a gaseous state

7. Water Cycle

8. Water properties  There are two types of water found in the soil:  Capillary water is water that plant roots can absorb or take up  Free water (gravitational) is water that drains out of a soil after it has been wet

9. Saturation  The soil condition that exists when water is added until all the spaces or pores are filled.  Usually happens after heavy rainfall over a period of time  Example: two or more inches of rainfall during a relatively short period of time (perhaps 3 hours)

10. Ground Water  Water found in underground deposits of water called aquifers.  Aquifers may be deep or shallow and can be reduced by constant pumping.  Wells are dug by drilling through the earth until we reach these underground aquifers. Water is then pumped or sucked up and used.  Contrary to some people belief, aquifers are not hollow spaces underground, but are usually layers of wet sand.

11. Surface Water  Water that is stored on the earth’s surface such as ponds, lakes, streams and rivers.  It is the important because most people get their water from these sources and is the most easily polluted.  Surface water runoff is a major source of pollution.  Water is evaporated from the deposits and recharges the water cycle.

12. Soil  Soil vs. Dirt  Soil – The outermost thin layer of the earth’s surface capable of supporting life.  All of life comes from the soil. Without it, we would surely perish.  Soil takes many centuries to form and is so durable it can last as long as our species survives, yet it is so fragile it can be destroyed almost overnight.

13. Soil Forming Factors  Parent Material  Soil Organic Matter  Weathering Factors  Temperature changes  Water Action  Plant roots  Ice Expansion  Mechanical grinding

14. Soil Layers or Horizons  O Horizon – Organic Matter  A Horizon – Topsoil  B Horizon – Subsoil  C Horizon – Parent Material (bedrock)

15. The O Horizon or layer of Organic Matter  Organic – dead decaying plants and animals  Black or dark brown  Loose, crumbly, well broken up  Zone of decomposition

16. A Horizon - Topsoil  The surface layer that is the most fertile and where most plants grow  Dark brown to yellow  Generally loose, crumbly, well broken up  Zone of leaching  Many consider the O horizon to be part of the topsoil.

17. B Horizon or Subsoil  The layer that is under the topsoil and is usually a different color and has little organic matter.  It is usually brown, red, yellow, or gray  Generally larger chunks, may be dense or crumbly, can be cement like  Zone where minerals tend to accumulate.

18. C Horizon or Bedrock  Made up mostly of large and small rocks.  Can be close or deep under the soil surface.  The type of rocks or minerals present here often determine the soil makeup.

19. Soil Characteristics

20. Texture  Refers to the size of soil particles.  Color does not indicate soil texture. Huge misconception.  Soil Textures  Sand – largest soil particle size  Sandy soils have problems holding enough water for good plant growth  Particles are large enough to be seen by the naked eye.  Will not form a soil leaf and extend over the figure without breaking off.

21.  Loam or Silt – Intermediate size soil particles but can’t be seen easily with the naked eye.  It will form a soil leaf and will extend over the figure for about ½” before it breaks and falls off.  The most ideal soil texture for growing plants.

22.  Clay – Smallest of the soil particles.  Clay soil has the highest ability to hold water  It can be airtight, infertile and restricts root growth.  Some clays will swell when wet and shrink when dry.  Often clay texture is associated with wet soils.

23. Structure  Refers to the way soil particles cling together to form soil units or aggregates  Types of Soil Structure  Single grain – associated with sandy soils (beach sand)  Granular – particles cling together to form rounded aggregates and is desirable for all soil uses.  Blocky – particles cling together in angular aggregates and is typical of soils with high levels of soil.

24. Soil Color  Soil color indicates the presence or absence of oxidation (rusting)  Soil whose pores are filled with air not water over long periods of time will oxidize or turn a red/orange color.  Soils whose pores are filled with water and not air for long periods of time will remain dull shades of gray.  Therefore soil color is an indicator of a soil’s ability to drain called drainage.

25. Other Important Soil Characteristics  Permeability is the rate of movement of air and water through the soil  Slope is the rise and fall of the land or the angle of the soil to the horizon.  Flood Hazard – A soil tendency to be covered by water after heavy rain. Is due to the location of the soil in the soil topography.

26. Soil Classifications  After determining the many characteristics of a soil it can be placed into a Soil Class.  These classes range from I, the best, to VIII (the worst).

27. Soil classifications  Are designated by Roman numerals I through VIII  Class I and II land is the best for the most intensive cultivation of field crops  Class VII land is very steep sloping and best used for planting trees  Class VIII land is best suited for wildlife and recreation

28. Soil Mapping  Soils have future been classified by the identification and naming of similar soils throughout the U.S.  This has been accomplished by the Natural Resources Conservation Service.  Areas that have been mapped have free copies of the maps available.  Sampson County does have a county map.

29. Soil conservation and enhancement  The biggest threat to our land is soil erosion.  Erosion is a natural process and takes place at all times on soil.  It is when we disturb or alter the soil that it can increase it potential for erosion.  Soil are disturbed when we plow, plant, cut trees, remove natural vegetation, or build.

30. Erosion  The two major types of erosion are:  Sheet erosion – loss of an fairly uniform layer of the soil surface often without noticeable gullying.  Gully erosion – loss of soil in larger, often impassible trenches or ditches from runoff.  The primary causes of erosion are:  Water runoff  Wind  Man

31. Soil Conservation  How can we use our soil, yet conserve it or leave it where nature intended it to be left?  Conventional tillage practices  Contour farming  Strip cropping  Waterways  Covercrops

32.  Conservation Tillage Methods  No-Till – Planting crops directly into residue of the previous crop without plowing  Use of chemicals to control weeds verses plowing.  Windrows – rows of trees to knock down wind.  Crop rotations

33. Careers for various education levels  Bachelor’s degree would be the minimum for:  Soil scientist- classify soil according to the most appropriate use  Soil conservation- assist landowners in implementing best land use practices

34. Careers for various education levels  Less than 4 year college degree:  Soil technician- uses soil auger/ soil tube to take soil samples and do field work  Equipment Operation – using large earth moving equipment to move and alter the landscape.

35. Forestry The art and science of managing forest so as to yield on a continuous basis, a maximum in quality and quantity of forest products and services

36. The forest is a complex association of trees, shrubs, and other plants.

37. Uses of our Forest  Oxygen Production  Shade  Recreation  Lumber  By-Products such as paper, fuels, oils, etc.

38. Forestry  1/3 of the total land in the U.S. is covered by trees.  Approximately 500 million acres  However, only 250 million acres are considered to be productive.  77% of the forest land is privately owned.  23% owned by companies, federal, state and local governments.

39. A Forest Ecosystem Is “Interdependent”  Meaning that every organism depends on every other living and nonliving element of the system.  Living components of the forest = producers (able to make food), consumers (eats other producers and consumers), and decomposers (break down organic material).  Non-living components = soil, water and climate.

40. 4 MAIN PARTS OF A TREE  CROWN- where the tree increases each year in height and spread of branches by adding on a new growth of twigs. LEAVES- make up the crown and produce food for the tree (photosynthesis). TRUNK- supports the crown and produces the majority of the tree’s useful wood. ROOTS- anchors the tree, absorbs and stores water and nutrients.

43. HOW A TREE GROWS  Heartwood- the supporting column of inactive (dead) gap-wood which gives the trunk strength and stiffness.  Sapwood (xylem)- new layers of wood that transports water and nutrients from roots to the leaves.  Cambium- microscopic layer of cells where growth takes place.  Inner bark (phloem)- carries food made in leaves down to the branches, trunk and roots.  Outer bark- hold in moisture and protects the tree from insects and disease, excessive heat and cold, and mechanical injury.

44.  All trees compete for the same basic requirement of life – light, water, essential elements, oxygen, and other necessities.  The species that are better able to gather those requirements will out-compete others.

45.  Broadleaved or hardwood trees are better able to compete and grow on deeper, heavier, more productive soils.  The needle-leaved trees or conifers do better on poorer, lighter textured soils.

46. Major Forest Types  There are six major forest types in the conterminous United States  The Northern Forest  The Central Forest  The Southern Forest  The Bottomland Forest  The West Coast Forest  The Western Interior Forest

48. Lumber Boards that are sawed from trees. Board Foot- unit of measure of lumber. 1” x 12” x 12” = one board ft.

49. Tree Classifications Evergreens – trees that do not shed their leaves on a yearly basis. Wood from them is called softwood. Conifers- Cone bearing trees are considered to be evergreens. Deciduous- trees that shed their leaves every year and produce wood called hardwood.

50. Products from trees  Lumber  Paper  Tar and Pitch  Turpentine  Wood Alcohol  Poles  Charcoal

51. Pulpwood  Wood from trees used to make paper products  Approximately 15% of the annual U.S. wood harvested goes for this purpose.  How many ways to we use Paper?

52. Parts of a Tree  Roots - anchor the plant and is responsible for absorption of water and minerals into the plant.  Trunk or stem – support the plant and transport food and water up and down the plant  Crown or leaves – produce sugars or food from carbon, hydrogen and oxygen through a process called photosynthesis.

53.  Fruit or Seed – The reproductive part of the plant that is formed from the male flower sperm and the female flower egg.  Common Tree Fruits  Nuts  Berries  Cones  Acorns  Winged seed

54. Wood Properties  Properties to Consider in selecting Lumber  Hardness  Weight  Shrinkage  Warp  Ease of Working  Paint holding ability  Nail Holding

55.  Decay Resistance  Bending Strength  Stiffness  Toughness  Surface Characteristics

56. Softwoods vs. Hardwoods  Softwoods come from needle producing evergreens  Types of Softwoods  Southern pine  Includes loblolly, longleaf, short leaf and slash pine.  Most commonly used for pulpwood and plywood http://www.state.sc.us/forest/reftree.htm - contents

57. Loblolly pine

58. Longleaf pine

59. Short leaf pine

60. Slash pine

61. Frazier fir  Used for commercial Christmas tree production  Grown in the mountains of NC http://www.nelsonstrees.com /shop.asp

62. Douglas fir  Perhaps the most important species of tree in the US  Use for construction lumber and plywood http://www.orst.edu/in struct/for241/con/spp/ dgfspp.html

63. Hardwoods  Hardwoods come from deciduous trees  Ash:  Used for handles, baseball bats  Resembles oak and has a high resistance to shock http://www.magdalin.com/herbal/ plants_pages/a/ash_tree.htm

64. Birch  Used for furniture, plywood, paneling  Made into veneer http://www.state.sc.us/f orest/tidtsim.htm#rb

65. Oak (white and red)  Flooring, furniture, fencing  Very strong wood http://www.state.sc.us/ forest/tidlob.htm

66. Silviculture – the scientific management of forest Goals of Forest Management – To make wise use of our forest resources without depletion of our forest land, and produce a profit while preserving and making wise use of the resource.

67. Replacing Trees That Have Been Harvested  Virgin Forest – Forest that has never been harvested by man.  The least expensive method of seeding to replace harvested trees is “natural seeding”  A surer method of replacing harvested trees is to plant seedlings

68. Managing Growing Timber  A “Prescribed burn” is used to reduce the risk of wild fires by eliminating forest litter  “Prescribed thinning” is recommended to remove some trees when competition slows the growth of all trees  Maintaining access to forestland by vehicles.

69. Harvesting timber  “Selection cutting” is the harvesting method recommended in a mixed forest of trees consisting of different ages and species  “Clear cutting” is a system of cutting timber where all of the trees in an area are removed.  “Seed Tree Harvesting” – Cutting all but a few larger trees left as seed bearers.

70. Threats to the Forest  Fire – Kills and slows growth  Pests – Insect and Disease  Domestic Animals – grazing cattle, sheep and goats  Man

71. Forestry Organizations  U.S. Forestry Service  N.C. Forestry Service  Companies  Weyerhauser  Canal Industries  International Paper  Georgia Pacific

72. Private Foresters – Contract their services to private citizens for managing timberland. Timber cruiser – Someone trained to estimate the value of current timberland.

73. Careers in Equipment in Forestry  Foresters provide assistance in managing forest for the family as well as the commercial grower  Foresters may recommend reseeding a harvested tract with the most appropriate seedlings

74. Careers in Equipment in Forestry  Foresters and forest technicians may use or recommend the following tools:  Increment borer to determine the age of trees within a stand  Planting bar for planting seedlings  Tree scale stick to estimate tree volume  Tree tape: circumference

75. Tools Increment borer http://www.pfmt.org/inve ntories/increment_borer.ht m Planting bar procedure http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/naturalresource s/DD0481.html#pm

76. Careers in Equipment in Forestry  Timber cruisers are hired by private landowners and companies to estimate the tree volume on a tract of land  Do outdoor work that requires physical stamina  Requires a high school diploma and special training in estimating tree volume

77. Logging Operations  Logging Foreman – responsible for overseeing and managing logging operations  Buncher/feller – cuts and fells trees

78. Skidder

79. Loader

80. Chainsaws

81. A few common trees of our area

82. Red Maple

83. River Birch

84. Dogwood

85. Sweet gum

86. Black Oak

87. Post Oak

88. Southern Red Oak

89. Sycamore

90. THE END

91. Wildlife Management Practices  Usually a by-product of the family operation  Suitable habitat and food are essential to increase the number of wildlife on a farm  Habitat: brush piles  Food: crop residue

92. Wildlife Management Practices  Proper wildlife management includes managed hunting and fishing  Removes excess wildlife that would otherwise be lost due to natural causes  Prevents overpopulation, which results in malnutrition, disease and a reduction in reproduction which will result in decreased wildlife population

93. Wildlife Management Practices  Carrying capacity is the number of wildlife each habitat can support throughout the year  Managed hunting and fishing will help maintain  More wildlife than the habitat can support will result in problems

94. More wildlife than habitat can support  Wildlife are affected by malnutrition, disease, and a reduction in the reproductive cycle  Habitat quality goes down. Example, water quality of a stream with a carrying capacity of 20 fish will decrease if 50 fish are in the stream

95. Careers in Wildlife Management  Ecologists study the effects of the environment on animal life  Wildlife biologists advise government agencies in establishing fish/game laws and habitat improvement programs

96. Careers in Wildlife Management  Game warden (wildlife officer)  Enforces hunting and fishing regulations as means of wildlife management  Should enjoy working outdoors  In NC- government employee under NC Wildlife Commission  NC Wildlife Commission is responsible for controlling the harvest of wildlife

97. Aquaculture and Management of Fish Production  Cage culture contains the aquatic animals or plants in a small area of a pond  Fish can be monitored better for growth rates and feeding purposes  Water quality must be monitored to insure that the fish are not stressed or killed since fish cannot move to other sections of the pond during stressful weather conditions

98. Aquaculture and Management of Fish Production  Roll over is a condition where a pond’s water quality suddenly changes during certain weather conditions  During roll over, less oxygenated water is brought to the surface and low levels of dissolved oxygen cause fish to die

99. Aquaculture and Management of Fish Production  The difficulty in managing an aquaculture production system is directly related to the density of fish, etc in the system

100. Aquaculture and Management of Fish Production  Many types of fish are adapted to aquaculture systems  Trout are adapted to systems in cold, running water  Catfish, Striped Bass, and Tilapia also are important species

101.  Why is capillary water an important source of groundwater?  ? Contains underground species of fish  ? Plant roots can absorb or take it up  ? Makes up aquifers and underground streams  ? Drains out of the soil before being used by plants

102.  Saturation often occurs after a short period of heavy rain. Why is that important?  ? Irrigation is required to empty ponds  ? Plants grow faster than they are suppose to  ? Ponds dry up and fish are killed  ? Soil spaces are filled with water

103.  The cycling of water between water sources, the atmosphere, and surface areas of the earth is called the:  ? Water cycle.  ? Nutrient cycle.  ? Food chain.  ? Nitrogen cycle.

104.  Why is precipitation important in the water cycle?  ? Rate of air movement in the soil  ? Keeps moisture in a gaseous state  ? Release of moisture as rain or snow  ? Size of soil particles

105.  Why is evaporation important in the water cycle?  ? Regulates have fast water leaches through the soil  ? Controls the flow of underground water  ? Involves the changing of gaseous state of water to a liquid form  ? Process of changing liquid water to a gaseous state

106.  Permeability is the rate of movement of what through the soil?  ? Air and fertilizer  ? Water and microorganisms  ? Water and fertilizer  ? Water and air

107.  Why is water known as the universal solvent?  ? Changes in form from ice to snow to sleet to rain  ? Dissolves or otherwise changes most other materials  ? Has replaced paint thinner and mineral spirits  ? Can be used as a substitute for gasoline

108.  What land class can be farmed year after year with little conservation treatments?  ? III  ? IV  ? I  ? II

109.  The tendency of soil particles to cluster together and function as soil units or aggregates is called:  ? Texture.  ? Color.  ? Slope.  ? Structure.

110.  If a soil pH level is 6.0 and needs to be raised to 7.0, what amendment is BEST incorporated into the soil?  ? Sulfur  ? Magnesium  ? Sodium  ? Lime

111.  If planting trees is the MOST intensive recommended land treatment, the likely land class is:  ? VII.  ? IV.  ? I.  ? II.

112.  The land class that allows the MOST intensive use with the fewest limitations is:  ? Class VIII.  ? Class I.  ? Class III.  ? Class VI.

113.  Kristy examines a soil discovers a single-grained stucture. Which soil is she MOST likely looking at?  ? Loamy  ? Silty  ? Clayey  ? Sandy

114.  The top or surface layer of soil in a soil profile is the:  ? B horizon.  ? A horizon.  ? C horizon.  ? Parent material.

115.  What is the BEST description for No till as a cropping technique?  ? Crops are planted in the residue of a previous crop without plowing  ? Plowing is done prior to planting  ? Used only when the farmer is not concerned with soil erosion  ? Geese are used as the major source of weed control

116.  Which is true of the particles size of sandy soils?  ? Smallest soil particles  ? Largest soil particles  ? Larger than clay but smaller than silt  ? Larger than silt but smaller than clay

117.  Spaces between soil particles to permit root penetration and store air, water, and nutrients are called:  ? Pores.  ? Stoma.  ? Cations.  ? Anions.

118.  An individual who classifies soil according to the MOST appropriate use for farming is a:  ? Soil scientist.  ? Developer.  ? Soil chemist.  ? Farmer.

119.  The MINIMUM level of education required for a soil scientist is a/an:  ? Bachelors degree (4 years).  ? High school diploma.  ? Postsecondary vocational education.  ? Associates degree (2 years).

120.  A career as a wildlife biologist is MOST likely in the field of:  ? Natural resources.  ? Agricultural production.  ? Agricultural chemicals.  ? Food processing.

121.  Which is a career that can be performed with less than 4 years of college and focuses on collecting soil samples?  ? Soil technician  ? Soil conservationist  ? Wildlife biologist  ? Wildlife technician

122.  Which is the BEST use of a soil tube?  ? Testing soil pH  ? Vertical plumbing to locate points  ? Obtaining soil for testing  ? Determining soil temperature

123.  Which is a career that requires a MINIMUM of 4 years of college to do research on wildlife habitat?  ? Wildlife biologist  ? Soil conservationist  ? Soil technician  ? Wildlife technician