1. Physical and Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood Chapter 17 Robert S. Feldman Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. Looking Ahead What is it like to grow old in the United States today? What sorts of physical changes occur in old age? How are the senses affected by aging? What is the general state of health of older people, and to what disorders are they susceptible? Can wellness and sexuality be maintained in old age? How long can people expect to live, and why do they die? How well do older people function intellectually? Do people lose their memories in old age?

3. PHYSCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN LATE ADULTHOOD

4. What is old age?

5. GERONTOLOGISTS Specialists who study aging Late adulthood as a period of considerable diversity in which people change Growth in some areas, decline in others

6. How is old age divided? Some researchers divide aging people into three groups: Young old are healthy and active Old old have some health problems and difficulties Oldest old are frail and need care

7. Demographics of Aging

8. Who are the oldest old? Fastest growing segment of the population People who are 85 or older Group's size has nearly doubled in the last 20 years Trend is occurring in every developed country in the world

9. Myths of Aging

10. Ageism Prejudice and discrimination directed at older people is manifested in several ways Negative attitudes about older people, especially about competence and attractiveness Job discrimination

11. Discrimination Identical behavior by an older person and a younger person is interpreted differently People talk baby talk to persons in nursing homes Most negative views are based on misinformation

12. Physical Transitions Primary AgingSecondary Aging

13. You know you are aging when… Grey and white hair; thinner Wrinkles Diminishing height

14. Osteoporosis Bones become brittle, fragile, and thin, often brought about by a lack of calcium in the diet 25 percent of women over 60 have osteoporosis Largely preventable with sufficient calcium and exercise

15. Double Standard Women, especially in Western cultures, suffer from the double standard for appearance Women who show signs of aging are judged more harshly than are men Women are more likely to dye their hair Women are more likely to have plastic surgery

16. Changes in Internal Function Brain becomes smaller and lighter with age Reduction of blood flow to the brain Space between the skull and the brain doubles from age 20 to 70 Number of neurons, or brain cells, declines

17. All Systems Go…or Gone? 75-year-old's heart pumps less than three- quarters of the blood it pumped during early adulthood Efficiency of the respiratory system declines with age Digestive system produces less digestive juice and is less efficient in pushing food through the system

18. Aging and Change

19. Peripheral Slowing Hypothesis Older adults’ reaction time slows significantly Suggests that overall processing speed declines in peripheral nervous system (spinal cord and brain)

20. Generalized Slowing Hypothesis Processing in all parts of the nervous system, including the brain, is less efficient Older people have more accidents Decision process is slowed down

21. Senses Old age brings a distinct declining in the sense organs of the body Vision Lens becomes less transparent and the pupils shrink Optic nerve becomes less efficient Distant objects become less acute

22. The Eyes Have It! Cataracts Cloudy or opaque areas of the lens of eye that interfere with passing light, frequently develop Cataracts can be surgically removed Intraocular lens implants

23. Glaucoma Pressure in the fluid of the eye Glaucoma can be corrected with drugs or surgery Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) Affects the macula

24. The World Through Macular Degeneration The most common cause of blindness in people over the age of 60 is age- related macular degeneration (AMD). This disorder affects the macula, a yellowish area of the eye located near the retina at which visual perception is most acute. When a portion of the macula thins and degenerates, the eyesight gradually deteriorates (see Figure 17-6 ). If diagnosed early, macular degeneration can sometimes be treated with medication or lasers. In addition, there is some evidence that a diet rich in antioxidant vitamins (C, E, and A) can reduce the risk of the disease.

25. Hearing 30 percent of adults between 65 and 74 have some hearing loss 50 percent of adults over 75 have hearing loss High frequencies are the hardest to hear

26. Hearing Aids Hearing aids would be helpful 75 percent of the time Only 20 percent of people wear them Are imperfect and amplify all sounds so it is difficult to discern conversations There is a stigma attached to wearing a hearing aid Because they cannot hear, some people withdraw from society because they feel left out and lonely

27. Taste and Smell Both senses become less discriminating in old age Due to decline in taste buds on tongue Olfactory bulbs in the brain shrink and reduce the ability to smell People eat less and get poor nutrition Older people may over-salt their food and develop hypertension, or high blood pressure

28. Review and Apply REVIEW Older people are often the victims of ____—prejudice and discrimination against ____ ____. Old age brings both ____ changes (thinning and graying hair, wrinkles, and shorter stature) and ____ changes (decreased brain size, reduced blood flow within the brain, and diminished efficiency in circulation, respiration, and digestion). The two main hypotheses to explain the increase in reaction time in old age are the ____ ____hypothesis and the ____ ____hypothesis.

29. Review and Apply REVIEW Vision may become more difficult at ____, in ____ ____, and when moving from ____ ____ ____ and vice versa. Hearing, especially of ____ frequencies, may diminish, causing ____ and ____ difficulties, and ____ and ____ may become less discriminating, leading to nutritional problems.

30. HEALTH AND WELLNESS IN LATE ADULTHOOD

31. Physical Disorders Common Physical Disorders Leading causes of death are heart disease, cancer, and stroke. Higher incidence of infectious disease Arthritis Hypertension

32. Psychological and Mental Disorders Common Psychological Disorders Major depression Drug-induced psychological disorders Dementia

33. Alzheimer’s Disease Progressive brain disorder Produces loss of memory and confusion Incidence and projection

34. Symptoms of Alzheimer’s Disease Develop gradually Start with forgetfulness Affect recent memories first and then older memories fade. Causes total confusion, inability to speak intelligibly or recognize closest family members Loss of voluntary control of muscles occurs

35. The Biology of Alzheimer’s Disease Production of the protein beta amyloid precursor protein goes awry Produces large clumps of cells that trigger inflammation and deterioration of nerve cell Brain shrinks Neuron death leads to shortage of various neurotransmitters

36. What about a genetic link? Inherited disorder Nongenetic factors such as high blood pressure or diet may increase susceptibility Cross-cultural influences

37. Treatment and Cure No cure Treatment deals only with the symptoms Drugs effective in only half of Alzheimer’s patients Many end in nursing homes

38. Becoming an Informed Consumer of Development Caring for People with Alzheimer’s Disease Make patients feel secure Provide labels for everyday objects Keep clothing simple Put bathing on a schedule Prevent people with the disease from driving Monitor the use of the telephone Provide opportunities for exercise Take care of caregiver!

39. Relationship Between Aging and Illness Certain diseases, such as cancer and heart disease, have clear genetic component Economic well-being also plays role Psychological factors play important role in determining people’s susceptibility to illness—and ultimately likelihood of death

40. Chronic Illness Most older people have at least one chronic, long-term condition Arthritis Inflammation of one or more joints, is common, striking around half of older people Hypertension High blood pressure, striking about one-third of older people

41. Psychological Illness 15 to 25 percent of those over age 65 show some symptoms of psychological malady Depression Dementia

42. Can well-being improve? People can do specific things to enhance their physical and psychological well-being and their longevity – their active life spans -- during old age Eat a proper diet Exercise Avoid threats to health, such as smoking

43. Benefits of Exercise and Healthy Diet

44. Sex in Old Age: Use It or Lose It Related to physical and mental health and previous sexual activity Evidence suggests that people are sexually active well into their 80s and 90s Previous sexual activity increases the desire for sex

45. Old and Pretty or Pretty Old?

46. Approaches to Aging GENETIC PREPROGRAMMING THEORIES OF AGING WEAR-AND-TEAR THEORIES OF AGING LIFE EXPECTANCY

47. Reconciling Theories of Aging Each is supported by some research Each seems to explain certain aspects of aging Why the body begins to deteriorate and die remains something of a mystery

48. How long will YOU live?

49. Living to Age 100

50. Diversity in Aging Lifespan averages Caucasian in the U.S. is likely to live 76 years African American is likely to live 71 years Japanese is likely to live 79 years Gambian is likely to live less than 45 years Gender averages Male born in the U.S. is most likely to live 73 years Female born in the U.S. is most likely to live 80 years

51. Finding the Fountain of Youth Telomere therapy Unlocking longevity gene Reducing free radicals through antioxidant drugs Reducing calories Bionic solution: Replacing worn-out organs

52. Developmental Diversity Gender, Race, and Ethnic Differences in Average Life Expectancy: Separate Lives, Separate Deaths Average white child born in the United States is likely to live 76 years. The average African American child is likely to live 5 years less.

53. Life Expectancy of African Americans and Whites

54. Developmental Diversity Gender, Race, and Ethnic Differences in Average Life Expectancy: Separate Lives, Separate Deaths Child born in Japan has a life expectancy of 79 years; for a child born in Gambia, life expectancy is less than 45 years.

55. Developmental Diversity Gender, Race, and Ethnic Differences in Average Life Expectancy: Separate Lives, Separate Deaths Male born in the United States today is most likely to live to the age of 73; a female will probably live some 7 years longer

56. Review and Apply REVIEW Although most older people are ____, the incidence of some serious diseases rises in old age, and most people have at least ____ chronic ailment before they die. Older people are susceptible to psychological disorders such as ____. The most prevalent and damaging brain disorder among older people is ____ disease.

57. Review and Apply REVIEW Proper diet, exercise, and avoidance of health risks can lead to ____ wellness during old age, and ____ can continue throughout the life span in healthy adults. Whether death is caused by ____ ____or by ____ ____ ____ ____ is an unresolved question. Life expectancy, which has risen for centuries, varies with ____, ____, and ____. New approaches to increasing life expectancy include ____ ____, reducing ____ ____ through ____ drugs, restricting ____ ____, and replacing worn-out organs.

58. Review and Apply APPLY Although some intellectual abilities gradually decline throughout adulthood, starting at around age 25, others stay relatively steady. The intellect retains considerable plasticity and can be maintained with stimulation, practice, and motivation. Declines in memory affect mainly episodic memories and short-term memory. Explanations of memory changes in old age have focused on environmental factors, information processing declines, and biological factors.

59. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN LATE ADULTHOOD

60. Researchers no longer see cognitive abilities of older people as inevitably declining True or False?

61. Intelligence in Older People Older Research Studies and Findings Notion that older people become less cognitively adept initially arose from misinterpretations of research evidence Problems Cohort effects Reaction time components Retesting effects Subject attrition

62. Recent Conclusions about Nature of Intelligence in Older People Schaie = Sequential methods Some abilities gradually decline; others stay relatively steady No uniform pattern of age-related changes across all intellectual abilities Acquired strategies remains steady and may improve

63. Fluid and Crystal Intelligence Some abilities (fluid intelligence) decline, starting at age 25 Other abilities (crystallized intelligence) stay steady or increase For some, there were cognitive declines in all abilities by age 67

64. Environmental Factors Certain environmental and cultural factors are related to greater or lesser degrees of intellectual decline Lesser declines are associated with many factors

65. Exercising the Aging Brain Continued cognitive stimulation keeps cognitive abilities sharp Training showed long-term effects Engaging in some form of mental workout- consistently and continually increasing the level of difficulty-is key to success

66. How does aging affect this? Think about what you have just learned about memory. How might aging contribute to retroactive and proactive interference? What development information about aging might support your response?

67. Memory: Remembrance of Things Past – and Present Episodic memory Semantic memory Short-term memory

68. An Opposing View…Salthouse Rate of true, underlying cognitive decline in late adulthood is unaffected by mental exercise Cognitive reserve Allows continued performance at relatively high mental levels, even with underlying declines Controversial

69. Decline and Stability Age-related memory declines are limited primarily to episodic memories Semantic memories and implicit memories are largely unaffected by age

70. Once upon a time Autobiographical memory Pollyanna principle Recall of material that "fits" current self- view Particular periods of life are remembered more easily than others

71. Remembrances of Things Past

72. Explaining Memory Changes in Old Age Explanations for apparent changes in memory among older people tend to focus on three main categories Environmental factors Information processing deficits Biological factors

73. Environmental Factors Certain environmental and cultural factors are related to greater or lesser degrees of intellectual decline Lesser declines are associated with many factors

74. Information-Processing Deficits Inability to inhibit irrelevant information and thoughts declines Speed of processing declines Attention declines Less efficient retrieval methods

75. Biological Factors Brain and body deterioration Especially frontal lobes Continuation of education in old age Can improve cognitive skills

76. It’s Never Too Late… Popularity of programs such as Elderhostel is part of a growing trend among older people Retired people have time to pursue further education Many public colleges encourage senior citizens to enroll in classes by providing them with free tuition Older adults often have no trouble maintaining their standing in rigorous college classes Professors and other students generally find presence of older people real educational benefit

77. Review and Apply REVIEW Although some intellectual abilities gradually ____ throughout adulthood, starting at around age ____, others stay relatively ____. The intellect retains considerable ____ and can be maintained with ____, ____, and ____. Declines in memory affect mainly ____ memories and ____ memory. Explanations of memory changes in old age have focused on ____ factors, information processing ____, and ____ factors.

78. Review and Apply APPLY Do you think steady or increasing crystallized intelligence can partially or fully compensate for declines in fluid intelligence? Why or why not? How might cultural factors, such as the esteem in which a society holds its older members, work to affect an older person’s memory performance?

79. EPILOGUE Return to the prologue of this chapter, about Jock Brandis’s invention of the Universal Nut Sheller, and answer the following questions: In what ways does Jock contradict the stereotypes of older people and life in late adulthood? In what ways does he confirm these stereotypes? What elements of Jock’s life may have contributed to his high level of activity? What do you think he was like as a younger person? What could Jock do to maintain his high level of cognitive functioning?