1. What was decided at the Yalta Conference in February 1945? (4) ‘ Germany was to be divided into four zones of occupation.’ ‘The zones to be controlled by USA, USSR, Britain and France.’ ‘Berlin was to be in Soviet zone.’ ‘Berlin was to be divided into four.’ ‘A United Nations Organisation to be set up to keep the peace.’ ‘As east European Countries liberated they would be able to hold free elections to set up democratic governments.’ ‘In Poland free elections were to be held.’

2. Explain why there was a breakdown in relations between the USSR and the West from 1945 to 1946. (6)

3. Explain why the USA was hostile towards the Soviet Union in the years 1945–1949 (6) ‘‘Truman was highly suspicious of Stalin’s motives. He was much less trusting than Roosevelt had been. Stalin refused to reduce the size of theRed Army, the biggest in the world. In Eastern Europe he believed the Sovietleader intended to set up USSR controlled buffer states.’ ‘The Western allies accused Stalin of breaking agreements over Germany. The Western Allies wanted Germany to recover as quickly as possible, realising that it would be a barrier against Communism. The USSR wanted a weak Germany.

4. What was the ‘Iron Curtain’? (4) ‘The border between Soviet controlled countries and the West.’ ‘The boundary of USSR dominated countries after Potsdam.’ ‘It was the division of Europe between democracy and communism.’ ‘A term introduced by Churchill relating to the boundary between democracy and communism.’ (2) ‘It was a political and economic division between the communist states of the East and the capitalist democracies of the West.’ (2)

5. Explain why Marshall Aid was offered to countries in Europe. ‘Aid was given to help end hunger and poverty after the war.’ ‘Marshall Aid was to be given to support any free peoples struggling to avoid a communist takeover.’ ‘Truman realised that countries in Europe were struggling to cope with the after-effects of war and needed economic aid.’ ‘Aid was provided to build up the economy of European countries to provide trading opportunities for the USA.’ ‘Truman did not want to send soldiers to fight communism. He believed communism flourished where there was want and misery. There was plenty of this in Europe after the war ended and so he offered economic aid to restore economies.’ ‘Stalin forbade all Soviet bloc countries from accepting as he believed Marshall Aid was given to win friendship and support for the USA and provide trading opportunities.’

6. Explain why the Soviet Union blockaded Berlin in 1948. Stalin wanted to keep Germany weak so that it would not be a threat to the USSR.’ ‘Stalin wanted to force Western Allies to pull out by starving them into surrender and thus making Berlin dependent on the USSR.’ ‘The West was showing off a capitalist way of life and Stalin saw this as a threat to his control.’ ‘Stalin opposed the introduction of a new currency. The Soviets were concerned that the Allies were trying to create a new Germany that was wealthier that the Soviet eastern Germany and which would attract people from the poorer east.’

7. ‘The Soviet Union was to blame for the Cold War.’ How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer. ‘At the end of the war the main aim of the USSR was to make itself safe from future attack. This meant they were determined to dominate Eastern Europe. It had been expected that there would be free elections in Eastern Europe but the Red Army made sure the new governments were communist controlled.’ ‘Stalin increased hostility by refusing to allow poor Soviet bloc countries to accept Marshall Aid as he thought the real purpose was to enable the USA to build friendships with eastern European countries.’ ‘Stalin feared the growth of Germany and wanted it to remain weak and so he blockaded Berlin.’ ‘To the USA the takeover of Eastern Europe was seen as the start of the spread of communism around the world. The US response was the Truman doctrine that offered support to free peoples struggling to avoid communism.’ ‘When the war ended the USA and USSR drifted apart as there was now no common enemy. They both held different ideologies of capitalism and communism and their actions led to suspicion and hostility.’ ‘Churchill increased hostility with his views expressed in a speech where he referred to the ‘Iron Curtain’.’

8. Explain why there was a breakdown in relations between the USSR and the West from 1945 to 1946. ‘Stalin was annoyed with the USA because Truman had not told Stalin he was going to use the atomic bomb. Stalin was convinced that the USA would use the bomb to win worldwide power.’ ‘In some countries the USSR was beginning to impose Communist rule by not allowing free elections and leaving the Red Army in occupation.’ ‘The Western Allies were concerned because the USSR wanted Poland’s western frontier moved into Germany and the German population removed.’ ‘There was disagreement over Germany. The USSR was accused of breaking the agreement over what could be taken as reparations. The Western allies wanted Germany to recover as quickly as possible whilst the USSR wanted it to remain weak so that it would not be a threat.’ (developed)

9. ‘The Berlin Blockade was more to blame than the Marshall Plan for increasing Cold War tension.’ How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer. ‘The Allies created West Berlin and Stalin was worried Germany was beginning to recover. Stalin blocked the supply lines in an attempt to force out the Allies. This created tension as supplies had to reach the inhabitants.’ ‘Marshall Aid was a great help to European countries in poverty after the war. One of the benefits to the USA was to motivate trade. The act was viewed with suspicion by Stalin as he thought there was an anti-Communist aim behind the plan.’

10. Describe the USA’s response to Castro’s seizure of power in Cuba. (4) The answer can go up to, and including, the Bay of Pigs. e.g. ‘The relationship became frosty but without direct confrontation.’ ‘In January 1961 the USA broke of diplomatic relations.’ ‘In April 1961 The US supported a direct invasion – the Bay of Pigs.’ ‘To starve Castro into submission.’ ‘The US banned the buying of sugar and then banned all trade with Cuba (Oct 1960).’ (2 marks)

11. Describe the Bay of Pigs invasion. (4) One mark for each relevant point; additional mark for supporting detail. [4] eg ‘In April 1961, 1 400 exiles, trained by the CIA landed at the Bay of Pigs in an attempt to overthrow Castro. They were met by 20 000 Cuban troops.’ ‘The Cuban troops were successful, killing or capturing the exiles.’ ‘The anticipated support from the Cubans did not materialise.’ ‘Kennedy claimed there was no direct involvement of the American government.’

12. Explain why the failure of the Bay of Pigs invasion caused problems for the USA. (6)

13. Explain why the Soviet Union became involved in Cuba. (6) eg ‘Khrushchev wanted to bargain with the USA. If he had missiles in Cuba he could agree to remove them if the USA removed their missiles from, Turkey.’ ‘In the context of the Cold War, he was trying to see how strong the USA really was and to test the new President.’ ‘Khrushchev was anxious to defend Cuba. It was the only Communist state in the Western hemisphere, and had willingly become Communist. In addition Cuba was in the US’s ‘backyard’. It was ideal to try to encourage Communist development in South America.’

14. Explain why Khrushchev sent missiles to Cuba in 1962. Khrushchev wanted the missiles as bargaining power. If he had missiles on Cuba threatening America, he could agree to remove them in return for American concessions in Turkey.’ ‘The missiles were a trap. Khrushchev wanted the Americans to find them and be drawn into a nuclear war. This is evident from the fact that he did not try and hide the weapons.’ ‘In the strained atmosphere of Cold War politics the missiles were designed to see how strong the Americans really were – whether they would back off or face up.’ ‘Khrushchev was so concerned about the missile gap between the USSR and the USA that he would seize any opportunity he could to close it. With missiles on Cuba it was less likely that the USA would ever launch a ‘first strike’ against the USSR.’ ‘He had been requested by Castro with help to defend Cuba. Castro feared a US attack after the Bay of Pigs incident.’ ‘In the strained atmosphere of Cold War politics the missiles were designed to see how strong the Americans really were – whether they would back off or face up. They wanted to test the inexperienced Kennedy and push him as far as possible. Kennedy already had suffered an embarrassment with regard to the Bay of Pigs.’

15. Explain why Kennedy could claim victory in the Cuban Missile Crisis. (6) ‘Kennedy came out of the crisis with a greatly improved reputation in his own country and throughout the West having stood up to Khrushchev and made him back down.’ ‘Kennedy removed the view of him being a weak / inexperienced President by standing up to Khrushchev who had thought he was a push-over.’ ‘Kennedy stood up to the hardliners in his own government. They had wanted to invade Cuba. Kennedy argued it was not worth such a high risk.’ ‘Kennedy decided to follow a policy of containment by introducing a blockade and persuading Khrushchev to turn his ships around. The hardliners in his government and some of his advisers wanted him to turn back Communism. This was a dangerous, high risk strategy which could have resulted in nuclear war.’ (Developed)

16. ‘ Kennedy handled the Cuban Missile Crisis better than Khrushchev did.’ How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer. (10) ‘Kennedy came out of the crisis with a greatly improved reputation in his own country and throughout the West. He had stood up to Khrushchev and forced him to back down.’ ‘Kennedy also stood up to the hardliners in his own government. Some had wanted the USA to invade Cuba but Kennedy realised this was not worth the high risk. Instead he persuaded Khrushchev to withdraw and not cross the blockade.’ Kennedy did have to remove the US missiles from Turkey. However, Khrushchev had to agree to keep this secret so as not to gain publicity.’ OR ‘There was no question that keeping Cuba safe from America action was a major achievement for the Soviets. Cuba was a valuable ally and proved a useful base to use to support Communists in South America.’ ‘In public, Khrushchev was able to highlight his role as a responsible peacemaker, willing to make his first move towards compromise.’ ‘The crisis damaged Khrushchev’s prestige; despite the fact he claimed the crisis was a victory for the Soviet Union. Some leading Soviet politicians were angry that their country had been forced to back down. They played a significant part in Khrushchev’s dismissal in 1964.’

17. ‘The Cuban Missile Crisis was a victory for the Soviet Union.’ How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer. (10)

18. What involvement did America have in Vietnam between 1954 and 1962? (4) ‘Until 1954 the USA supported the French against the Vietminh with money and equipment.’ ‘Between 1954 and 1960 they sent equipment and military advisers.’ ‘The number of military advisers rose from 900 to 11,000.’ ‘In 1955 the US helped Ngo Dinh Diem set up the Republic of South Vietnam.’ ‘Prevented the holding of free elections in 1954 fearing the Communists would win.’ (2 marks) ‘To try and prevent the spread of Communism – domino theory.’

19. Describe the involvement of the USA in Vietnam before Johnson became President in 1963. (4) Until 1954 the USA supported the French against the Vietminh with money and equipment.’ ‘Between 1954 and 1960 they sent equipment and military ‘advisers’.’ ‘The number of military ‘advisers’ rose from 900 to 11,000.’ ‘In 1955 the US helped Ngo Dinh Diem set up the Republic of South Vietnam.’ ‘Prevented the holding of free elections in 1954 fearing the Communists would win.’

20. Explain why America was involved in Vietnam. ‘After the Second World War the USA feared the expansion of communism across Europe and Asia. They believed the future of US prosperity and democracy was at risk if communism was allowed to spread.’ ‘North Vietnamese torpedo boats were alleged to have attacked American boats in the Gulf of Tonkin in 1964. President Johnson gained Congress support to take the necessary steps to defend South Vietnam.’ ‘Americans felt increasingly threatened by the spread of communism. This fear was based on the ‘domino theory’, where if one country became communist others would follow. If South Vietnam fell it would be followed by Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Burma, India and Pakistan.’

21. What was the ‘domino theory’? (4) Credit to be given in relation to Asia rather than Europe. e.g. ‘The American believed that if one country in South East Asia turned communist all the others would fall to communism, one after another, like arow of dominoes.’ (2) ‘They were afraid that if communists took over South Vietnam, communism would go on to take over the world.’ ‘In addition to Vietnam, the countries under threat were Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaya, Indonesia and Japan.’ (1 mark for one country; 2 marks for two or more.) ‘It was related to the USA’s Cold War containment policy.’

22. Who were the Vietcong? (4) ‘People in Vietnam who fought against the USA.’ ‘Opponents of the South Vietnamese government.’ ‘Communist North Vietnamese.’ ‘A group taking orders from Ho Chi Minh.’ ‘The Vietcong were a communist guerrilla force of the National Liberation Front.’ (2)

23. Explain why the tactics used by the Communists in Vietnam were effective. ‘They were hard to pin down. They did not wear a uniform and had no known base camp. They often looked no different than the village peasants.’ ’The Communists knew how important it was to keep villagers on their side as they helped to conceal them or send the enemy into danger.’ ‘The aim of guerrilla attacks was to wear down the enemy soldiers and wreck their morale. This was effective as soldiers lived in constant fear of ambushes or booby traps which were hidden in the jungle. These booby traps were cheap to make but very effective in disrupting US patrols.’

24. Explain why the Communists used guerrilla tactics in the Vietnam War. ‘The aim of guerrilla attacks was to wear down the enemy soldiers and destroy their morale. It was effective as there was the constant fear of booby traps.’ ‘The Communist forces were no match for the superior American power but he had seen had successful guerrilla tactics could be in China where they were used by Mao to achieve a Communist victory. ‘The Viet Cong feared US air power and so tried to ensure it was close-quarter fighting –hanging on to American belts.’ ‘By the fact that they merged into the background they were difficult to find. They did not wear uniforms and worked in small groups. They were hard to tell apart from the peasants in the villages. They were helped by the Ho Chi Minh trail and underground supply lines.’ (developed)

25. Explain why the Vietnam War became unpopular in the USA. (6)

26. ‘The main reason for American withdrawal from Vietnam was the Tet Offensive of 1968.’ How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer. The cost of war was highlighted by ‘The Tet Offensive. There were nearly 500,000 troops in Vietnam and America was spending between $20 to $30 billion a year yet little impression was being made and the Vietcong were able to launch major offensives. This huge spending meant cutbacks in spending on social reform. ‘In 1967 ‘Life Magazine’ calculated it cost $400,000 for each Vietcong guerrilla killed. Whilst they were quickly able to regain control they used enormous amounts of artillery and air power. Many civilians were killed. The ancient city of Hue was destroyed.’ The policy of search and destroy, bombing and the use of chemical weapons failed and Johnson changed the policy after the Tet Offensive as he realised the war could not be won militarily.’ ‘Public opinion was changing.This was the first televised war and American people were horrified at the barbaric nature of American attacks an example being My Lai. As more and more soldiers returned in body bags or were considered to be on drugs, public opinion turned. It led to open criticism of Johnson – “Hey, Hey, LBJ, how many kids did you kill today”. The media had a significant impact. It showed children being burned by napalm and people in villages massacred.

27. The following were all equally important reasons for the American withdrawal from Vietnam: (i) the financial cost of war; (ii) the military tactics of the Vietcong; (iii) the failure of US military tactics. How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer referring only to (i), (ii) and (iii). ‘The financial cost of war was highlighted by the Tet Offensive. America was spending between $20 to $30 billion a year yet little impression was being made and this could be seen by the people at home on TV and the number of body bags. This huge spending meant cutbacks on social reform at home.’ The Viet Cong used guerrilla tactics which meant that the type of war the US military were prepared for did not work. They were ambushed and then the Viet Cong returned to the jungle. The US soldiers could not tell the difference between the peasants and the Viet Cong fighters.’ ‘Despite the policy of defoliation the Viet Cong continued to receive supplies along the Ho Chi Minh trails which were stored in an extensive underground system of tunnels. The use of Napalm resulted in innocent villagers receiving terrible burns and this horrified people in America resulting in mass protests against the policy.’

28. American public opinion was more important than military failure in causing the USA to withdraw from Vietnam.’ How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer. Public opinion was changing. This was the first televised war and American people were horrified at the barbaric nature of American attacks an example being My Lai. As more and more soldiers returned in body bags or were considered to be on drugs, public opinion turned. It led to open criticism of Johnson – “Hey, Hey, LBJ, how many kids did you kill today”. The media had a significant impact. It showed children being burned by napalm and people in villages massacred.’ The cost of war was highlighted by ‘The Tet Offensive. There were nearly 500,000 troops in Vietnam and America was spending between $20 and $30 billion a year yet little impression was being made and the Vietcong were able to launch major offensives. This huge spending meant cutbacks in spending on social reform. ‘In 1967 ‘Life Magazine’ calculated it cost $400,000 for each Vietcong guerrilla killed. Whilst they were quickly able to regain control they used enormous amounts of artillery and air power. Many civilians were killed. The ancient city of Hue was destroyed.’ ‘The policy of search and destroy, bombing and the use of chemical weapons failed and Johnson changed the policy after the Tet Offensive as he realised the war could not be won militarily.’

29. ‘ The tactics of the USA were the main reason for its failure in the Vietnam War.’ How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer. (10) ‘American technology and firepower were totally superior and under normal fighting conditions would have been successful. For example the bombing tactics could not defeat the Communists, only slow them down. Bombing often affected those the Americans wanted on their side.’ ‘The policy of search and destroy, bombing and the use of chemical weapons failed and Johnson changed the policy after the Tet Offensive as he realised the war could not be won militarily.’ The cost of war was highlighted by ‘The Tet Offensive. There were nearly 500,000 troops in Vietnam and America was spending between $20 and $30 billion a year yet little impression was being made and the Vietcong were able to launch major offensives. This huge spending meant cutbacks in spending on social reform. In 1967 ‘Life Magazine’ calculated it cost $400,000 for each Vietcong guerrilla killed.’ ‘The Vietcong were no match for the American forces in open warfare and so developed guerrilla tactics. The principles were simple. Retreat when the enemy attacks, raid when the enemy camps, attack when the enemy tires and pursue when the enemy retreats.’ ‘The Vietcong tactics were a nightmare the US soldiers. Guerrillas did not wear uniform and did not have base camps or headquarters. They were hard to tell from the peasants in the villages. They attacked and then disappeared into the jungle.’ ‘Their aim was to wear down the enemy soldiers and reduce morale. US soldiers lived in constant fear of attack.’