1. Ch. 12

2.  A. Teotihuacan  1. Large Mesoamerican city – height of power 450 – 600 CE. Religious structures include pyramids & temples for human sacrifice. Many gods, including Quetzalcoatl (became part of many other pantheons).  2. Forced relocation of farm families, irrigation works, and chinampas helped build agricultural production.

3.  3. “Apartment buildings” for commoners (including artisans who made pottery & obsidian goods). Elites had separate residential areas and controlled the bureaucracy, tax collection, & commerce.  4. Rule by alliances of powerful families. Military was used to protect and expand trade and to ensure payment of taxes and tribute.  5. Collapse ~650 CE due to mismanagement of resources, conflict within the elite, or invasion.

4.  B. Maya  1. Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, southern Mexico. Single culture, but not a unified political state. Rival kingdoms fought for regional dominance. Kings were hereditary.  2. Agriculture: drained swamps, built elevated & terraced fields, and built irrigation systems. Managed forest resources to ensure food supply.  3. Large city-states dominated regions. Levers & stone tools used for building.

5.  4. Cosmos had 3 layers: Heavens, human world, & underworld. Architecture of temples reflected cosmology. Built step pyramids. Kings & elites, as priests, communicated with the supernatural worlds. Rituals included bloodletting & human sacrifices (in cenotes, for example).  5. Military fought for captives, not land. Elite captives often sacrificed; commoners generally enslaved.  6. Families usually patrilineal, but some matrilineal heritage. Elite women participated in some bloodlettings & ceremonies. Women generally had little political power. Commoners did agricultural & textile work.

7.  7. Astronomy, calendar (multiple level – religious too), mathematics (0), hieroglyphics. Popul Vuh, a creation myth, one written work.  8. Most city-states were abandoned or destroyed ~800 – 900 CE. Reasons: disruption of trade after Teotihuacan fell, overpopulation & environmental pressure, or epidemic disease. (Culture did not completely disappear.)

9.  A. Toltecs  1. Arrived in Mexico in 10 th century. Based civ on Teotihuacan. Innovations in fields of politics & war.  2. Capital: Tula. 1 st conquest state in Americas. Dual kings – may have led to internal problems weakening state ~1000. Invaded & destroyed ~1168.

10.  B. Aztecs  1. Northern people w/ a clan-based society; migrated to Lake Texcoco. Established Tenochtitlan & Tlatelolco ~1325. Developed monarchical system; council chooses king, who must conquer territory to prove mandate. Last king: Montezuma II.  2. Wealth & power grew through territorial conquest. Commoners lost political influence; inequalities in wealth grew.  3. Agricultural production in capital region grew with land reclamation, irrigated fields, and chinampas. Grain & food tributes met almost 1/4 of capital’s needs. Chocolate, chiles, vanilla…

12.  4. Merchant class ranked below elite. Long- distance trade carried out; goods carried by human porters and exchanged with barter (no beasts of burden or money).  5. Many gods, including Huitzilopochtli (Sun). Required a diet of human hearts, so thousands of sacrifices annually (POWs & tribute from conquered peoples provided victims).

13.  A. Southwest Desert Cultures  1. Irrigation agriculture was introduced to Arizona from Mexico ~300 BCE. Hohokam, influenced by Mexico, built irrigation systems ~1000 CE.  2. Anasazi (“ancient ones”): “Four Corners” region. Developed maize/squash/beans agricultural economy. Underground buildings (kivas) & pueblos.  3. Anasazi community @ Chaco Canyon had ~15,000 people in hunting, trade, & agriculture. Exerted political and/or religious dominance over a large area. 12 th -13 th centuries: Anasazi decline due to drought, overpopulation, & warfare.

14.  B. Moundbuilders: Adena, Hopewell, & Mississippian  1. Adena: hierarchical hunter-gatherer society in Ohio Valley. Limited cultivation. Buried dead in mounds. ~100 CE, blended w/Hopewell.

15.  2. Hopewell: Ohio Valley to Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, New York, Ontario, & Florida. Hunting- gathering supplemented with agriculture.  3. Hereditary chiefs served as priests & managed secular issues (like trade). Large mounds used for burials and platforms for temples & chiefs’ residences.  4. Hopewell sites abandoned ~400. Technology & mounds then linked to Mississippian development of urbanized kingdoms… made possible by increased agriculture, bow & arrow, & expanded trade.  5. Largest Mississippian center: Cahokia. Abandoned ~1250; climate changes/population pressure?

17.  A. Cultural response to environmental challenge  1. Harsh environment of high-altitude Andes, dry coastal plains, & tropical Amazon headwaters forced people to organize labor for food production.  Basic unit: ayllu (clan). Land held collectively – members help each other & supply goods & labor to the chief.  3. Mit’a: Came into use ~1000. Each ayllu required to provide labor to religious institutions, royal court, & aristocracy.

18.  4. Work divided by gender. Men: hunt, war, gov’t. Women: weave, crops, home.  5. 4 major ecological zones: coast, mt. valleys, high elevations, & Amazonian. Each produced different goods; goods exchanged via trade route network.

20.  B. Moche & Chimu  1. Moche: north coastal Peru ~200 CE. Used mit’a to irrigate & produce maize, quinoa, beans, & manioc.  2. Society stratified & theocratic. Wealth & power in hands of elite: priests & military leaders (lived atop platforms; wore magnificent clothes, jewelry, & headdresses).  3. Artisans produce textiles, portrait vases, metallurgy. Gold & silver for decorative objects; copper & alloys for farm tools & weapons.  4. Decline: 6 th cen. - Natural disasters. Pressure from Wari in 8 th century.  Chimu: appeared @ end of Moche period. Height ~1200. Capital: Chan Chan. Rulers lived in luxury & built elaborate burial compounds.

21.  Tiwanaku & Wari  1. Tiwanaku, @ Bolivia’s Lake Titicaca, grew after 200 CE. Cultivated potatoes & grains on reclaimed marshland.  2. Urban construction; terraced pyramid, walled enclosures, reservoir. Fine stonemasonry – laborers used simple technology & copper-alloy tools.  3. Society stratified: hereditary elite, artisans… Probably a ceremonial & political center for regional population.  4. Wari: near Ayacucho, Peru. Contact w/Tiwanaku, but separate culture (city smaller, different techniques, no central plan…) Both declined by 1000.

22.  D. Inca  1. Began as small chiefdom in Cuzco. 1430s: Leaders consolidated political authority & began military expansion. By 1525, empire.  2. Key to wealth: developed/used military to broaden & expand Andean exchange network. Used mit’a for army, to build capital, maintain religious institutions, & provide for old/weak/ill.  3. Local rulers were controlled by military garrisons and their heirs were held hostage in Cuzco. Imperial bureaucracy led by king (Inca). Each king had to conquer territory.

23.  4. Cuzco laid out like puma. Stonework w/out mortar. Palaces & temples used for rituals, feasts, & sacrifices of textiles, animals, other goods, & humans (mummies found). Used llama/alpaca for pack animals & meat/wool. Khipu used for recordkeeping.  5. Known for astronomy, weaving, copper/bronze metallurgy, gold/silverwork. (Not new technology; refined existing techniques to increase profits.)  6. Wealth increased & local autonomy decreased. Civil war in 1545 weakened gov’t & control over territories.

25.  A. Western Hemisphere societies developed in response to the needs of their respective environments.  B. Aztec & Inca empires created by force. Maintenance required elites’ hold on military power. Pre-European arrival, in late 15 th century, both suffered & were weakened by internal revolts.