1. The Theory of Virtue Ethics

2. VE can be a little Difficult to grasp at first So if at first you Don’t succeed Try and remember that VE has 10 As!

3. Try to Remember 10 As ACTION ACTION AGENT AGENT ARISTOTLE ARISTOTLE ARETE ARETE AQUINAS AQUINAS ANTI ANTI ANSCOMBE ANSCOMBE ALISDAIR ALISDAIR “AFTER VIRTUE” “AFTER VIRTUE” A LA MODE A LA MODE

4. REVISION HELP: REMEMBER THE 10 As OF VE 1. ACTION – the Deontological and Teleological approach to ethics is based on action, on how you answer the question: “What is it right or obligatory to do?” 2. AGENT – the VE approach is to begin by focussing on the person as whole, on what makes a good person, on how a person can become better, on the agent who performs the actions.

5. REVISION HELP: REMEMBER THE 10 As OF VE 3. ARISTOTLE – VE has its roots in the writings of Aristotle. 4. ARETE – In his Ethics Aristotle described how what was needed to be a good human being was to develop excellence – arete. Virtues are examples of human excellence. Hence VE is sometimes called Aretaic Ethics.

6. REVISION HELP: REMEMBER THE 10 As OF VE 5. AQUINAS – In the 13 th century, Aquinas confirmed the importance of VE by making it Christian. 6. ANTI- – From the time of the Enlightenment onwards, an anti-VE approach developed as morality was thought of in terms of emotion (Hume and later Ayer), universal moral law (Kant), greatest happiness for the greatest number (Bentham and Mill).

7. REVISION HELP: REMEMBER THE 10 As OF VE 7. ANSCOMBE – In 1958 Elizabeth Anscombe urged a return to Aristotle arguing that “good” when applied to an action is nonsense – it must be applied to the agent. 8. ALISDAIR – Anscombe’s writing was followed by Alisdair MacIntyre who condemned the whole approach to ethics since the enlightenment.

8. REVISION HELP: REMEMBER THE 10 As OF VE 9. AFTER VIRTUE – MacIntyre’s theory was published in the book ‘After Virtue’ 1981. He argued that a rediscovery of Virtues is essential to counter the modern moral “dark ages” which society has entered. 10. A LA MODE – following MacIntyre’s work it would be true to say that VE has become increasingly popular and influential. It is the ethical theory a la mode.

9. What it is not! VE is not Action centred VE is not Action centred Therefore VE is not Therefore VE is not –Deontological –Teleological It is an approach to Ethics which needs a different perspective It is an approach to Ethics which needs a different perspective

10. ARISTOTLE Nichomachean Ethics

11. His concern was with what enables a person to live in society, a life which leads to the fundamental goal of all human activity: EUDAIMONIA

12. EUDAIMONIA refers to the state of having a desirable, happy, satisfying life. EDUAIMONIA is usually translated as WELL-BEING.

13. EUDAIMONIA can be achieved by a person who has developed the VIRTUES, the qualities of human excellence: ARETE

14. Aristotle spoke about 2 kinds of ARETE: (A) 12 Moral (B) 9 Intellectual

15. Moral Virtues

16. WHAT IS A MORAL VIRTUE? It is a trait of character It is a trait of character It is expressed by behaviour It is expressed by behaviour It can be acquired through habit It can be acquired through habit Aristotle lists 12 virtues Aristotle lists 12 virtues

17. COURAGE COURAGE MODESTY MODESTY TEMPERANCE TEMPERANCE LIBERALITY LIBERALITY MAGNIFICENCE MAGNIFICENCE MAGNAMINITY MAGNAMINITY PROPER AMBITION PROPER AMBITION PATIENCE PATIENCE TRUTHFULNESS TRUTHFULNESS HUMOUR HUMOUR FRIENDLINESS FRIENDLINESS SENSE OF JUSTICE SENSE OF JUSTICE

18. FOR REVISION REMEMBER AT LEAST THESE TWO ARISTOTLEAN MORAL VIRTUES COURAGE COURAGE MODESTY MODESTY

19. BUT HOW DOES ARISTOTLE DEFINE ARETE? Aristotle explained that a virtue was Aristotle explained that a virtue was –THE MEAN (mid-point) BETWEEN TWO VICES: –THE ONE OF EXCESS (TOO MUCH) EXCESS (TOO MUCH) –AND THE OTHER OF DEFICIENCY (TOO LITTLE) DEFICIENCY (TOO LITTLE)

20. GOLDEN MEAN Always referred to as Aristotle’s

21. EXPLANATION PLEASE! The VIRTUE of COURAGE falls between The VIRTUE of COURAGE falls between The vice of excess = The vice of excess =RASHNESS The vice of deficiency = The vice of deficiency =COWARDICE

22. EXPLANATION PLEASE! The VIRTUE of MODESTY falls between The VIRTUE of MODESTY falls between The vice of excess = The vice of excess =SHYNESS The vice of deficiency = The vice of deficiency = SHAMELESSNESS SHAMELESSNESS

23. Intellectual Virtues

24. WHAT IS AN INTELLECTUAL VIRTUE? It is a trait of thought It is a trait of thought It is rational It is rational It can be acquired through learning and experience It can be acquired through learning and experience Aristotle lists 9 intellectual virtues Aristotle lists 9 intellectual virtues

25. FOR REVISION REMEMBER AT LEAST THESE TWO ARISTOTLEAN INTELLECTUAL VIRTUES PRUDENCE PRUDENCE CLEVERNESS CLEVERNESS

26. NINE INTELLECTUAL VIRTUES 5 PRIMARY intellectual virtues 5 PRIMARY intellectual virtues –Prudence –Intelligence –Technical skill –Scientific knowledge –Wisdom

27. NINE INTELLECTUAL VIRTUES 4 SECONDARY intellectual virtues 4 SECONDARY intellectual virtues –Cleverness –Understanding –Resourcefulness –Judgement

28. For Aristotle the most important intellectual virtue is…

29. Phronesis/Prudence in Virtue Ethics it is this with which the person addresses the situation before analysing what would be the virtuous thing to do! PHRONESIS/PRUDENCE

30. WHERE DO VIRTUES COME FROM? According to Aristotle people are not born with VIRTUES According to Aristotle people are not born with VIRTUES They acquire or learn to be virtuous They acquire or learn to be virtuous Being virtuous leads to doing virtuous acts which leads to an increase in virtuousness Being virtuous leads to doing virtuous acts which leads to an increase in virtuousness

31. Another Quote: Aristotle NE “We are what we repeatedly do. Moral excellence comes about as a result of habit. We become just by doing just acts, temperate by doing temperate acts, brave by doing brave acts.”

32. VERY IMPORTANTLY Aristotle said that the best way for people to achieve Eudaimonia was to develop and exercise those qualities that are most productive for living in society. Aristotle said that the best way for people to achieve Eudaimonia was to develop and exercise those qualities that are most productive for living in society. Remember Ethics precedes Politics Remember Ethics precedes Politics Extremes of character are unhelpful in society. Extremes of character are unhelpful in society.

33. VERY IMPORTANTLY Every person should work to develop his own character, trying to make a habit out of virtue. Every person should work to develop his own character, trying to make a habit out of virtue. Soon, good actions will automatically follow, e.g. a good person will make good decisions. Soon, good actions will automatically follow, e.g. a good person will make good decisions.

34. THEREFORE! Virtue ethics leads to an increased sense of Virtue ethics leads to an increased sense ofCOMMUNITY Aristotle argued that living in a community alongside like-minded people is the best and happiest way to live and to achieve EUDAIMONIA Eudaimonia cannot be achieved in isolation

35. SO WHAT DOES THIS RESULT IN? Have virtues Live virtuously Provide a role model Future generations learn how to live

36. Aristotle endoresed by Aquinas Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics definitive account of morality endorsed by Aquinas Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics definitive account of morality endorsed by Aquinas Based on Aristotle’s list Aquinas defined: Based on Aristotle’s list Aquinas defined: 4 Cardinal Virtues (Latin: cardo = hinge) 4 Cardinal Virtues (Latin: cardo = hinge) On these 4 (ladies!) all moral virtues depend: On these 4 (ladies!) all moral virtues depend:

37. You need to know these… for the Examination and as a Life Lesson!

38. The Cardinal Virtues P = Prudence P = Prudence –Practical wisdom J = Justice J = Justice –Harmonious judgement of self & others T = Temperance T = Temperance –Self-control F = Fortitude F = Fortitude –Courage

39. Aquinas then added… 3 THEOLOGICAL VIRTUES OF: FAITH FAITH HOPE HOPE CHARITY CHARITY

40. MIDDLE AGES TILL 17 TH CENTURY Character based ethics was the definitive morality Character based ethics was the definitive morality Live the life where the 7 virtues are followed and the 7 deadly sins avoided Live the life where the 7 virtues are followed and the 7 deadly sins avoided The 7 virtues: The 7 virtues: –Prudence, Justice, Temperance, Fortitude, Faith, Hope and Charity

41. MIDDLE AGES TILL 17 TH CENTURY Prudence (PHRONESIS) remains the key and its different aspects should be put into practice: Prudence (PHRONESIS) remains the key and its different aspects should be put into practice: MEMORIA (keep the past in mind) MEMORIA (keep the past in mind) DOCILITAS (being open & teachable) DOCILITAS (being open & teachable) SOLERTIA (shrewdness) SOLERTIA (shrewdness) INTELLIGENTIA (knowing principles) INTELLIGENTIA (knowing principles)

42. FROM THE 17 TH CENTURY It could be argued that from the time of the Enlightenment, VE began to be less significant It could be argued that from the time of the Enlightenment, VE began to be less significant A new intellectual curiosity and critical awareness led to a focus on actions and rules rather than the individual and character? A new intellectual curiosity and critical awareness led to a focus on actions and rules rather than the individual and character?

43. Why Modern Rediscovery of VE? Partly born out of reaction against META-ETHICAL obsession with linguistics – “what does it mean to say x is good?” etc. Partly born out of reaction against META-ETHICAL obsession with linguistics – “what does it mean to say x is good?” etc. Refocus on recognition that “x is a good person” and how it is that we know “x is a good person” Refocus on recognition that “x is a good person” and how it is that we know “x is a good person”

44. MODERN VERSIONS OF VE ELIZABETH ANSCOMBE 1958 ALASDAIR MACINTYRE 1981

45. VIRTUE ETHICS UPDATED ANSCOMBE 1958 ANSCOMBE 1958 –Argued that the whole concept of Moral Laws/Obligations flawed –In the modern world there is NO “lawgiver” any longer –Moral obligation to act makes no sense in a community where there is no complete belief in God –Why be good?

46. –Actions tell us nothing about the person –Good actions do not make good persons –LAW first then good actions only done through obedience = wrong –Virtuous acts done in obedience are “amoral” –“The mercy of the wicked is cruel” Proverbs 20:11 Proverbs 20:11

47. Anscombe’s key idea that GOOD should be associated NOT with actions but with PEOPLE and their CHARACTER Anscombe’s key idea that GOOD should be associated NOT with actions but with PEOPLE and their CHARACTER She urged a return to ARISTOTLE She urged a return to ARISTOTLE

48. ALASDAIR MACINTYRE After Virtue 1981

49. More Updating McIntyre McIntyre –Modern ethical debate is “INTERMINABLE” –Goes on and on and on –Has no “TERMINUS” –Focus on ethical language etc. removes moral philosophy from people’s lives.

50. More Updating McIntyre: We are in… McIntyre: We are in… –Modern Dark Ages –Modern Moral Vacuum –Words such as good, moral, no longer have any meaning

51. More Updating Aristotle’s Virtues need to be reasserted in modern society e.g. Education, Politics etc. Aristotle’s Virtues need to be reasserted in modern society e.g. Education, Politics etc. All that we have today are PRACTICAL ‘virtues’ geared entirely to success & pleasure All that we have today are PRACTICAL ‘virtues’ geared entirely to success & pleasure

52. Quote from MacIntyre “Morality is simply the expression of personal preference in a culture which has abandoned the virtues and rejected the sense of community.”

53. More Updating In a society lacking virtues, INDIVIDUALISTIC figures have become archetypal: In a society lacking virtues, INDIVIDUALISTIC figures have become archetypal: –Bureaucratic Mangers –Rich Aesthetes –The Therapists They present icons for society to mimic and are without virtues They present icons for society to mimic and are without virtues

54. MacIntyre goes on to identify some archetypal characters that have evolved in a society lacking virtue…

55. The Bureaucratic Managers Political Bureaucrats Political Bureaucrats Spin merchants Spin merchants Media Moguls Media Moguls Directors of Multinationals Directors of Multinationals Traders and investors Traders and investors People whose expertise is efficient management with no moral strings attached. Profit not principle. These are dominant people in the modern world and are morally neutral.

56. The Rich Aesthetes These pursue greater and ‘more exciting’ pleasures. The image of the ageing rock star fits the bill. In the public eye of a celebrity obsessed culture lacking virtue and meaning. These pursue greater and ‘more exciting’ pleasures. The image of the ageing rock star fits the bill. In the public eye of a celebrity obsessed culture lacking virtue and meaning.

57. The Therapists These people keep the whole show on the road, charging the rich huge amounts of money to listen to their neurotic values (diminished and self justifying existences) meaningless echoes of their meaningless lives. The society we have created teaches us to value others less and ourselves more. These people keep the whole show on the road, charging the rich huge amounts of money to listen to their neurotic values (diminished and self justifying existences) meaningless echoes of their meaningless lives. The society we have created teaches us to value others less and ourselves more.

58. More from MacIntyre In any activity from painting to sport we have to recognise that “we are practitioners in relation to other practitioners” and need the virtues of justice, courage and honesty in order to progress TOGETHER. In any activity from painting to sport we have to recognise that “we are practitioners in relation to other practitioners” and need the virtues of justice, courage and honesty in order to progress TOGETHER. “esprit de corps” (group spirit) of regiments, teams needs to be reflected in society in general “esprit de corps” (group spirit) of regiments, teams needs to be reflected in society in general Virtues encourage and help develop a sense of community Virtues encourage and help develop a sense of community

59. This is neglected Common Sense… Every team has to have and share virtues! Every team has to have and share virtues! What about your team’s virtues? What about your team’s virtues? Here are the virtues of Culver College Rowers Here are the virtues of Culver College Rowers

61. This is neglected Common Sense… Notice how the virtues are clearly necessary for the team as a community to operate Notice how the virtues are clearly necessary for the team as a community to operate

63. SO NOW WE ARE ON TO EVALUATION: STRENGTHSANDWEAKNESSES

64. STRENGTHS OF VE? Allows for Moral Heroes as role models Allows for Moral Heroes as role models What about the common approach of many young Christians today: WWJD? What about the common approach of many young Christians today: WWJD? What would the virtuous person do in a situation which might help me in my situation? What would the virtuous person do in a situation which might help me in my situation?

66. STRENGTHS OF VE? Emphasises all the time the importance of the Person who is after all the object of most moral discourse! Emphasises all the time the importance of the Person who is after all the object of most moral discourse! Quote from Robert Solomon (Modern VEist): Quote from Robert Solomon (Modern VEist): –“The very idea that the good person is one who acts according to the right principles…makes my blood run cold.”

67. STRENGTHS OF VE? "Morality is internal. The moral law... has to be expressed in the form, 'be this,' not in the form 'do this.'... The true moral law says 'hate not,' instead of 'kill not.'... The only mode of stating the moral law must be as a rule of character." "Morality is internal. The moral law... has to be expressed in the form, 'be this,' not in the form 'do this.'... The true moral law says 'hate not,' instead of 'kill not.'... The only mode of stating the moral law must be as a rule of character." Leslie Stephen (Modern VEist), The Science of Ethics

68. STRENGTHS OF VE? Above all VE encourages COMMUNITY and rejects individualistic approach to ethics. Above all VE encourages COMMUNITY and rejects individualistic approach to ethics.

69. STRENGTHS OF VE? Development of feminist approach to ethics: Elizabeth Anscombe et al: basing everything on reason, rules, laws = male ways of approaching life Development of feminist approach to ethics: Elizabeth Anscombe et al: basing everything on reason, rules, laws = male ways of approaching life Feminist approach = A recognition of the value of relationships & community building rather than individualism Feminist approach = A recognition of the value of relationships & community building rather than individualism

70. KEY WEAKNESS! VE NEGLECTS CONDUCT Other ethical theories propose procedures for deciding what to do in whatever circumstance – VE provides an INADEQUATE code to live by

71. CAN VE HELP IN A MORAL DILEMMA? Louden (anti-VE):“What can a virtue and vices approach say about specific moral dilemmas?” Louden (anti-VE):“What can a virtue and vices approach say about specific moral dilemmas?” One response: PINCOFFS (a Pure Aretaicist i.e. strong follower of VE) (1986): “It is not the central business of moral theories to help us resolve moral quandries” One response: PINCOFFS (a Pure Aretaicist i.e. strong follower of VE) (1986): “It is not the central business of moral theories to help us resolve moral quandries”

72. What do we think of that? Louden : he clearly has a point – VE is not an ABCDE approach or a Relativist SE approach Louden : he clearly has a point – VE is not an ABCDE approach or a Relativist SE approach PINCOFFS: he has a point in suggesting that ethics is not about the moral quandary but about a person living in community PINCOFFS: he has a point in suggesting that ethics is not about the moral quandary but about a person living in community

73. CAN VE HELP IN A MORAL DILEMMA Another response: Rosalind Hursthouse (A VEist) on Abortion (1988) Another response: Rosalind Hursthouse (A VEist) on Abortion (1988) Usually woman’s right or status of foetus are key issues Usually woman’s right or status of foetus are key issues According to VE: both are irrelevant in discussing the rightness or wrongness of abortion According to VE: both are irrelevant in discussing the rightness or wrongness of abortion LEARN THIS ONE! NOTICE IT IS FROM A FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE

74. Key questions for a VE approach from Hursthouse Key questions for a VE approach from Hursthouse –In having an abortion would the woman be behaving virtuously or ‘viciously’? –Eudaimonia (human flourishing) is achieved by parenthood & motherhood –For a woman NOT having a baby but choosing an abortion “may manifest a flawed grasp of what her life should be, and be about”

75. Through having a child a woman behaves in VIRTUOUS way demonstrating and developing the virtues of, for example: Through having a child a woman behaves in VIRTUOUS way demonstrating and developing the virtues of, for example: “ strength, independence, resoluteness, decisiveness, self-confidence, responsibility, serious- mindedness, self- determination”

76. WEAKNESSES VE about living with a goal of eudaimonia but those who live without a goal, who are not virtuous may FLOURISH in a different and more exciting way. VE about living with a goal of eudaimonia but those who live without a goal, who are not virtuous may FLOURISH in a different and more exciting way. The Golden Mean might mean dull, virtuous lives rather than lives lived intensely and to the full The Golden Mean might mean dull, virtuous lives rather than lives lived intensely and to the full RUSSELL: “Philosophers…are constitutionally timid and dislike the unexpected. Few of them would be genuinely happy as pirates or burglars.”

77. WEAKNESSES Different societies and different cultures value different character traits as VIRTUES Different societies and different cultures value different character traits as VIRTUES Christian culture = PRIDE is a VICE Christian culture = PRIDE is a VICE Aristotle = PRIDE is the crowning virtue e.g. his description of “the great souled man”: Aristotle = PRIDE is the crowning virtue e.g. his description of “the great souled man”: –“The great-souled man is concerned especially with honours and dishonours…. The great-souled man wishes to be superior.”

78. WEAKNESSES VE guilty of looking back to some kind of perfect age – Aristotle may have had valid points but also weaknesses in his ideas VE guilty of looking back to some kind of perfect age – Aristotle may have had valid points but also weaknesses in his ideas Important to avoid false nostalgia: JULIA ANNAS (1992) Important to avoid false nostalgia: JULIA ANNAS (1992) –“Ethics would be a kinder, gentler place if we could forget about hard cases and talk about friendship and the good life instead. Like much nostalgia, this is misplaced.”

79. What about this problem! “What should I do?” “Do what the virtuous person would do.” “Who is the virtuous person?” “The person who does the right thing.” “How do I know it is the right thing?” “Because it is done by a virtuous person.” “But who is the virtuous person?” “The person who does the right thing.” (Circular argument)

80. WEAKNESSES Robert Louden: Robert Louden: ‘ We ought, of course, to do what the virtuous person would do, but it is not always easy to fathom what the hypothetical moral exemplar would do were he in our shoes.’

81. WEAKNESSES How do we make a list of VIRTUES? Even Virtue Ethicists do not agree on what they are apart from positive and constructive attitudes: e.g. How do we make a list of VIRTUES? Even Virtue Ethicists do not agree on what they are apart from positive and constructive attitudes: e.g. –Keenan: prudence, justice, fidelity, self-care, mercy –Rachels: courage, honesty, loyalty towards friends

82. A Final Good Quote worth learning Keenan (A modern VEist): Keenan (A modern VEist): We are simply interested in persons, not action. It is not “what should I do?” but “who should I become?” We are simply interested in persons, not action. It is not “what should I do?” but “who should I become?”

83. VE may have been a little difficult to grasp so once more can you remember the: 10 As!

84. Try to Remember 10 As ACTION ACTION AGENT AGENT ARISTOTLE ARISTOTLE ARETE ARETE AQUINAS AQUINAS ANTI ANTI ANSCOMBE ANSCOMBE ALISDAIR ALISDAIR “AFTER VIRTUE” “AFTER VIRTUE” A LA MODE A LA MODE