1. Punctuation and Grammar: some of the basics and other key points which can impact positively on the effect of our children’s writing

2. The basic word types Noun: object/thing/place/name Verb: doing or being word Adverb: describes how the verb is being done (mostly, but not always, ends in –ly) Adjective: describes a noun Pronoun: replaces a noun (I, me, he, she, him, her, they, we, us, it, etc) Connective/conjunction: links together two clauses (parts of/information in) in a sentence

3. Clause types A ‘clause’ is merely part of a sentence usually consisting of a noun and a verb...but not always). The dog sat on the mat, feeling very tired. The dog sat on the mat because he was feeling tired.

4. Main (independent) clause: makes sense on its own and contains a verb. The dog sat on the mat, feeling very tired. Feeling very tired, the dog sat on the mat.

5. Subordinate (dependent) clause: doesn’t makes sense on its own and relies on the main clause to make sense. The clause underlined below is a subordinate clause but also an adverbial clause (gives us more information on what is being done). The dog slumped down on the mat, feeling very tired. Feeling very tired, the dog slumped down on the mat.

6. Embedded (sandwich) clause: embedded clauses are put into a sentence to add additional detail for the reader. They are, more often than not, subordinate and do not make sense by themselves. Embedded clauses can be separated by commas, brackets or dashes. The dog, who was tired and hungry, sat on the mat. The dog (who was tired and hungry) sat on the mat. The dog - who was tired and hungry - sat on the mat. Here, ‘who was’ is not necessarily needed as we know that the dog is a ‘who’. The dog, tired, hungry and longing for his dinner, sat on the mat.

7. The rule for an embedded (sandwich) clause is that if you take out the sandwich filling, the sentence still makes sense... The dog sat on the mat.

8. Sentence types

9. Simple sentence: one clause with a verb and a noun A simple sentence has no commas (unless for a list). The dog sat on the mat.

10. Compound sentence: two clauses linked by a connective or a comma (if there is a connective starting the sentence). Both of the clauses make sense on their own – he was tired and the dog sat on the mat both make sense alone. The dog sat on the mat because he was tired. Because he was tired, the dog sat on the mat.

11. Complex sentence: consists of a main (independent) clause and a subordinate (dependent) clause (which does not make sense by itself) The dog sat on the mat, feeling very tired.

12. WHEN TEACHING OUR PUPILS, WE WANT TO ENCOURAGE USE OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN PLACE OF ALWAYS USING CONNECTIVES TO HELP MIX TONE AND SENTENCE STRUCTURE. HIGHER LEVEL PUNCTUATION CAN HELP TOO...

13. Higher level P-code We can use higher level punctuation to add an extra clause of detail for the reader without having to use another comma or connective if we have already used them in the sentence (using too many commas and connectives can lead to too many lengthy sentences which can obstruct a reader’s understanding).

14. Ellipses (...) can be used to add a pause for effect – perhaps a hook for the reader to create suspense or maybe to encourage the reader to stop, reflect or empathise with a character.

15. He stared vacantly into the vast desert and just then, he thought he saw something. No...it surely couldn’t be, could it? Here the ellipse is used for the reader to pause for a reason – the pause here is a moment where the character is trying to see that ‘something’ and it enables the reader to reflect on what it might be.

16. Semi-colons (;) are used to add an extra clause when a connective or comma is not appropriate, perhaps due to an already extended sentence where they are already used to separate clauses.

17. The dog sat on the mat and licked his lips, wondering what he would have for dinner tonight; he really hoped that it wouldn’t be left over chilli again! The general rule with semi-colons is that the information that comes after it, adds detail for the clause that was before it. However, the part after a semi-colon MUST MAKE SENSE BY ITSELF!

18. Dashes (-) are used in a similar way to semi-colons but can also be used instead of commas for embedded clauses (see above)

19. Sentence Openers Starting sentences in the same way leads to a boring tone for the reader, regardless of the plot. We want to encourage our young writers to start sentences in different ways and restructure them. Usually, the way we start a sentence will have a big impact on how the reader understands a piece of writing and emphasises information differently. We can begin sentences with: connectives, verbs, adverbs, or adjectives as well as the usual.

20. Connective opener Because he was tired, the dog sat wearily on the mat.

21. Verb opener Sitting wearily on the mat, the dog was very tired. (Here the reader will note most importantly that whatever is sitting, is doing so wearily)

22. Adverb opener Wearily, the tired dog sat on the mat. (Here, the weariness is highlighted even more as it is alone – the reader will be encouraged to empathise with this because of its place in the sentence and the pause (comma) after it)

23. Adjective opener Tired and weary, the dog sat on the mat. (Here, the description of the dog is most prominent and leads the reader again to empathise with the tired dog)

24. Clearly, if we alter the structure of our sentences, it can slightly alter the meaning and we want our children to understand the reasons for why we structure sentences in different ways rather than just saying that it is a good thing to do! They need to know for what purpose we are doing it!

25. Mix sentence lengths If all sentences are the same length, unless done for effect, the tone of the text will be boring. When a piece of writing has simple, compound and complex sentences within it, the pace of the text changes. We want our pupils to know that this should be done for a purpose, more often than not to enable the reader to empathise with us, the writers.

26. Sometimes, we might have lots of simple sentences together but it might be for a particular effect... Then he saw it! He ran. He jumped. He crouched. He hid, hoping and praying that the beast wouldn’t smell his scent. (Here, we begin with four very short sentences to give the effect that things are happening very quickly and it only extends and slows down when he is hidden and then reflecting and hoping.)

27. The following is a piece of writing was done by a year 5 pupil. The main focus was mixing sentence lengths for effect and to enable the reader to empathise with the character who was a refugee in Africa...

28. Solemn. Lonely. My area has been attacked by rebels. I need food or water soon; I need the refugee camp. I stop. I turn. Then I see it...a river! I run over to it as fast as I can, determined to feel its wetness on my lips. Broken, I look down. It was a mirage. I sit melancholy and I am lonelier than ever. Here, the short sentences at the beginning encourage the reader to reflect on why the character might be solemn and lonely and the big pauses (full stops) give time for that reflection. The writing speeds up when he runs over to the river and then we have a subordinate clause to add the character’s feeling.

29. Without doubt, the new high speed rail service, linking London with the north, will provide many more opportunities for those living in other parts of the country. Nevertheless, many oppose the scheme. Angry and frustrated, environmentalists believe that the cost to animal habitats is too great a price to pay. Perhaps it is.

30. Our pupils might not always be able to explain why their writing has sped up or slowed down but they will still be able to give the effect that they want to give. Offering verbal reasoning can be pretty difficult for adults, let alone children. Nonetheless, encouraging our pupils to consider how their and other authors sentence lengths change will enable them to spot these techniques when they read and appreciate them a little more.

31. Birdsong by Sebastian Faulks The noise of their laughter roared like the sea in his ears. He wanted it louder and louder; he wanted them to drown out the war with their laughter. If they could shout loud enough, they might bring the world back to its senses; they might laugh loud enough to raise the dead.

32. Any questions…?