1. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 1 PowerPoint Presentations for Philip G. Zimbardo Robert L. Johnson Vivian McCann Prepared by Beth M. Schwartz This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program. Sixth Edition

2. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 2 This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program. ISBN: 0-205-42428-7 Chapter 4 Memory

3. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 3 Human memory is an information processing system that works constructively to encode, store, and retrieve information What is Memory?

4. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 4 What is Memory? Memory – A cognitive system that first processes, encodes, and stores the information we learn and later allows us to retrieve

5. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 5 Metaphors for Memory Human memory is not like a video recorder Human memory is an interpretive system, much like an an artist Reconstructive process Information undergoes systematic changes as it is processed

6. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 6 Human Memory is Good at: Information on which attention is focused Information in which we are interested Information that arouses us emotionally Information that fits with our previous experiences Information that we rehearse

7. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 7 EncodingStorage Access and Retrieval Memory’s Three Basic Tasks

8. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 8 EncodingStorage Access and Retrieval Involves modification of information to fit the preferred format of the memory system Elaboration – Type of encoding in which meaning is added to information in working memory so that it may be more easily stored and retrieved Memory’s Three Basic Functions

9. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 9 EncodingStorage Access and Retrieval Involves retention of encoded material over time Memory’s Three Basic Functions

10. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 10 EncodingStorage Access and Retrieval Involves the location and recovery of information from memory Memory’s Three Basic Functions

11. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 11 Each of the three memory stages encodes and stores memories in a different way, but they work together to transform sensory experience into a lasting record that has a pattern of meaning How Do We Form Memories?

12. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 12 The Three Stages of Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory

13. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 13 The Three Stages of Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Preserves brief sensory impressions of stimuli, also called sensory register

14. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 14 The First Stage: Sensory Memory On the next slide, you will see a series of letters for five seconds Try to remember as many letters as you can

15. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 15 D J B X H G C L Y

16. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 16 The First Stage: Sensory Memory How many can you recall?

17. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 17 D J B X H G C L Y

18. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 18 The First Stage: Sensory Memory The actual capacity of sensory memory can be twelve or more items All but three or four items disappear before they can enter There is a separate sensory register for each sense

19. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 19 The First Stage: Sensory Memory Psychologists believe that, in this stage, memory images take the form of neural activity in the sense organs

20. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 20 The Three Stages of Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Preserves recently perceived events or experiences for less than a minute without rehearsal, also called short-term memory or STM

21. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 21 The Second Stage: Working Memory A mental work space where we sort and encode information before adding it to more permanent storage Information is stored for about 20 seconds Rehearsal leads to longer duration Capacity of the “magic number” 7

22. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 22 Encoding and Storage in Working Memory Chunking – Organizing pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units Maintenance rehearsal – Process in which information is repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory

23. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 23 Encoding and Storage in Working Memory Elaborative rehearsal – Process in which information is actively reviewed and related to information already in LTM

24. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 24 The Three Stages of Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Stores material organized according to meaning, also called LTM

25. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 25 The Third Stage: Long-Term Memory Procedural memory – Division of LTM that stores memories for how things are done Declarative memory – Division of LTM that stores explicit information (also known as fact memory)

26. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 26 Semantic memory – Subdivision of declarative memory that stores general knowledge, including meanings of words and concepts The Third Stage: Long-Term Memory Episodic memory – Subdivision of declarative memory that stores memories for personal events, or “episodes”

27. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 27 Semantic memory Includes memory for: (schema) language, facts general knowledge Episodic memory Includes memory for: events, personal experiences Includes memory for: motor skills, operant and classical conditioning Long-term memory Declarative memoryProcedural memory

28. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 28 The Biological Basis of Long-Term Memory Engram – The physical trace of memory Anterograde amnesia – Inability to form memories for new information Retrograde amnesia – Inability to remember information previously stored in memory Neuroscience and long-term memory – Consolidation Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

29. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 29 How Do We Retrieve Memories? Whether memories are implicit or explicit, successful retrieval depends on how they were encoded and how they are cued

30. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 30 Explicit memory – Memory that has been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled (knowing where to place your keys on a keyboard) How Do We Retrieve Memories? Implicit memory – Memory that was not deliberately learned or of which you have no conscious awareness (what did you have for breakfast?)

31. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 31 Retrieval Cues Priming – Procedure of providing cues that stimulate memories without awareness of the connection between the cue and the retrieved memory Think of playing Hangman or Wheel of Fortune as an example…

32. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 32 Priming If you are presented with the following words: assassin, octopus, avocado, mystery, sheriff, climate

33. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 33 Priming An hour later, you would easily be able to identify which of the following words you had previously seen: twilight, assassin, dinosaur, mystery

34. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 34 ch_ _ _ _ nk o _ t _ _ _ us _ og _ y _ _ _ _ l _ m _ te Priming However, an hour later, you would also have a much easier time filling in the blanks of some of these words than others:

35. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 35 Priming While you did not actively try to remember “octopus” and “climate” from the first list, they were primed in the reading, which made them easier to identify in this task chipmunk octopus bogeyman climate

36. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 36 Recall and Recognition Recall – Technique for retrieving explicit memories in which one must reproduce previously presented information Recognition – Technique for retrieving explicit memories in which one must identify present stimuli as having been previously presented

37. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 37 Other Factors Affecting Retrieval Encoding specificity principle – The more closely the retrieval clues match the form in which the information was encoded, the better the information will be remembered

38. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 38 Other Factors Affecting Retrieval Mood-congruent memory – A happy moods is likely to trigger happy memories, depression perpetuates itself through biased retrieval of depressing memories

39. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 39 Other Factors Affecting Retrieval Prospective memory – Remembering to remember Continuous monitoring – Trying to keep intended actions in mind Tip-of-the-Tongue phenomenon (TOT) – Inability to remember with the sense you have the information in memory

40. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 40 Why Does Memory Sometimes Fail Us? Most of our memory problems arise from memory’s “seven sins” – which are really by-products of otherwise adaptive features of human memory

41. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 41 Transience Absent- Mindedness Blocking MisattributionSuggestibility BiasPersistence Memory’s “Seven Sins”

42. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 42 Transience The impermanence of a long-term memory; long-term memories gradually fade in strength over time Relearning Savings method Forgetting curve

43. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 43 Forgetting Meaningful Information Interference One item prevents us from forming a robust memory for another item Proactive interference: old memory disrupts remembering new information Retroactive interference: new information prevents remembering old information

44. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 44 Absent-Mindedness Forgetting caused by shifting attention elsewhere e.g., misplacing keys, phone

45. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 45 Blocking Forgetting that occurs when an item in memory cannot be accessed or retrieved e.g., Tip-of-the-tongue

46. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 46 Misattribution Memory fault that occurs when memories are retrieved, but they are associated with the wrong time, place, or person

47. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 47 Suggestibility Process of memory distortion as a result of deliberate or inadvertent suggestion Misinformation effect Fabricated memories

48. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 48 Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitnesses: Leading questions Passage of time Age of the witness Confidence

49. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 49 Bias An attitude, belief, emotion, or experience that distorts memories Expectancy bias Self-consistency bias

50. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 50 Persistence Memory problem in which unwanted memories cannot be put out of mind

51. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 51 The Advantages of the “Seven Sins” of Memory Despite the grief they cause us, the “seven sins” may actually be by-products of adaptive features of memory Absent-mindedness is the by-product of the useful ability to shift our attention

52. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 52 Improving Memory with Mnemonics Mnemonics – Techniques for improving memory, especially by making connections between new material and information already in long-term memory Mnemonic strategies include: Method of loci Natural language mediators

53. Copyright © Allyn and Bacon 2009 53 Using Psychology to Learn Psychology Make the material meaningful Spread learning over time Minimize interference Review and elaborate material Test yourself with retrieval cues