1. Forestry & Land Management

2. This lecture will help you understand: Ecological and economic contributions of forests History and scale of deforestation Forest management and harvest methods Major federal land management agencies Types and design of protected areas

3. Forests Forest – any ecosystem with a high density of trees Many kinds of forests exist – Boreal forest – in Canada, Scandinavia, and Russia – Tropical rainforest – South and Central America, Africa, Indonesia, and southeast Asia – Temperate deciduous forests, temperate rainforests, and tropical dry forests also exist – Woodlands – ecosystems with lower density of trees Plant communities differ due to soil and climate – Forest types – are defined by predominant tree species Forests cover 31% of Earth’s surface

4. Forest types The Eastern U.S. has 10 forest types – Spruce-fir, oak-hickory, longleaf-slash pine The Western U.S. holds 13 forest types – Douglas fir, ponderosa pine, pinyon-juniper woodlands

5. Forest Growth Primary growth – Upward and downward growth – Growth at the tips of shoots and roots Vessels transport water and sugars – Phloem Transports sugars – Xylem Transports water and minerals Layers of xylem added each year (wood) Increase girth from added layers termed secondary growth

6. Early Forest Development Establishment stage – Tree seedlings on cleared ground Thinning stage – Largest trees grow, but density declines – Several thousand to a few hundred trees per acres

7. Late Forest Development Transition stage – Large trees die and leave gaps – Increased light and reduces competition to allow seedlings to establish Old-growth stage – Very large old trees and abundant standing and fallen wood debris

8. Forests are ecologically complex Forests are some of the richest ecosystems for biodiversity – They are structurally complex, with many niches – They provide food and shelter for multitudes of species – Fungi and microbes have parasitic and mutualistic relationships with plants Plant diversity leads to greater overall organism diversity – Succession changes species composition Old-growth forest diversity exceeds that of young forests – They have higher structural diversity, habitats, and resources

9. A cross-section of a mature forest

10. Forests provide ecological services Forests are an important global reserve The ecological services of forests include: 1.Providing habitat for wildlife 2.Carbon sinks 3.Affecting local climate patterns 4.Purifying air and water 5.Reducing soil erosion as they serve as a watershed, absorbing and releasing controlled amounts of water 6.Providing energy and nutrient cycling

11. Carbon storage helps limit climate change Carbon storage by forests is of great international interest – Nations debate how to control climate change Trees absorb carbon dioxide and store carbon – The world’s forests store 280 billion metric tons of C Cutting forests worsens climate change – Dead plants decompose and release carbon dioxide – Fewer trees soak up less carbon dioxide Preserving forests keeps carbon out of the atmosphere

12. Forests provide us valuable resources Benefits: medicines, food, fuel, shelter, ships, paper Help us achieve a high standard of living Logging locations: – Boreal forests: Canada, Russia – Rainforests: Brazil, Indonesia – Conifer forests/pine plantations: U.S. In 2010, 30% of all forests were designated for timber production

13. Valuable Products 3.4 billion cubic meters of wood per year – 53% of wood consumption for fuel Burned or made into charcoal – 31% for building material Housing, furniture, containers – 16% for paper Uses smaller logs Produces water pollution – Proportions vary by region Hundreds of non-wood products come from forests – Rubber – Food items Syrup Wild nuts and berries Herbs and spices – Pharmaceuticals

14. Most primary forest is gone The entire eastern half of the continent used to be covered in primary forest Most primary forest was cut for agriculture and timber

15. Plantation Forestry Tree plantations – are large, managed commercial or government-owned tree farms – Fast-growing, single-species monocultures – Trees may not be native to the area and may be hybrids (GM) – Primary use is for pulp and lumber – Pine, spruce, and eucalyptus are widely used due to their fast growth rate Even-aged stands – all trees are the same age Rotation time – trees are cut after a certain time – The land is replanted Uneven-aged stands – mixed ages of trees and species Tree plantations are crops, not ecologically functional forests

16. Tree Plantations Pros Practical method for trees that require full or moderate sunlight in order to grow Efficient and economical method. Genetically improved species of trees that resist disease and grow faster can be grown. Increases economic returns on investments. Produces a high yield of timber at the lowest cost, and provides jobs. Cons Reduces recreational value of land. If done on steeply sloped areas, will often cause soil erosion, water pollution, and flooding. Causes habitat fragmentation Reduces biodiversity. Promotes monoculture and tree plantations that are prone to disease or infestation through lack of diversity.

17. Old Growth Forests Old-growth forests are forests that have been seriously impacted by humans activities for hundreds of years. Characterized by: – High biodiversity – Older and mixed-aged trees – Minimal signs of human activity – Multilayer canopy openings due to tree falls – Pit-and-mound topography due to trees falling and creating new microenvironments by recycling carbon-rich organic material directly to soil – Decaying wood and ground layer that provides a rich carbon sink – Dead trees that are necessary nesting sites for woodpeckers and spotted owls – Healthy soil profiles – Indicator species – A fungal ecosystem

18. Demand for wood leads to deforestation Deforestation – the clearing and loss of forests – Changes landscapes and ecosystems – Reduces biodiversity – Worsens climate change – Disrupts ecosystem services – Ruins civilizations Although the rate of deforestation is slowing, we still lose 12.8 million acres/year

19. Deforestation fed the growth of the U.S. Deforestation propelled the expansion and growth of the U.S. and Canada Eastern deciduous forests were the first to be logged – Timber companies moved south to the Ozarks, west to the Rockies Primary forest – natural forest uncut by people – Little remained by the 20th century Second-growth trees – grown to partial maturity after old-growth timber has been cut Secondary forest – contains second-growth trees – Smaller trees, very different species and structure

20. Rapid deforestation in developing nations Uncut tropical forests still remain in many developing countries (Brazil, Indonesia, and West Africa) – Technology allows for even faster exploitation Developing countries are so desperate for economic development, they have few logging restrictions Concession – corporations pay the government for the right to extract resources – Temporary jobs are soon lost, along with the resources – Wood is exported to North America and Europe

21. Solutions to Deforestation Conservation concessions – organizations team up to reduce deforestation and illegal logging Carbon offsets – curb deforestation and climate change – Forest loss causes 12–25% greenhouse gas emissions – The Kyoto Protocol does not address this REDD – Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation – From the 2009 Copenhagen climate conference – Wealthy nations would pay poor nations to conserve forests

22. Forest management Forestry (silviculture) – forest management – Sustainable forest management is spreading Foresters – professional managers who must balance demand for forest products (short-term benefits) vs. the importance of forests as ecosystems (long term) Resource management – strategies to manage and regulate potentially renewable resources – Sustainable management does not deplete resources – Managers are influenced by social, political, and economic factors

23. Maximum sustainable yield Maximum sustainable yield – aims to achieve the maximum amount of resource extraction without depleting the resource from one harvest to the next Populations grow fastest at an intermediate size – Population size is at half its carrying capacity Harvesting to keep the population at this size results in maximum harvest – While sustaining the population

24. Maximum sustainable yield has problems Managed populations are much smaller than they would naturally be Reducing populations so drastically affects other species – Changing the entire ecosystem Trees are cut long before they grow to maximum size – Changing forest ecology – Eliminating habitats

25. Harvesting timber: clear-cutting All trees in the area are cut – Most cost-efficient – Greatest ecological impact – May mimic some natural disturbance (e.g., storms) – Leads to soil erosion Public outrage caused companies to use other harvesting methods Clear-cutting destroys entire communities

26. Harvesting: other methods Seed-tree approach – a few seed-producing trees are left standing to reseed the logged area Shelterwood approach – some trees are left to provide shelter for the seedlings as they grow Selection systems – only select trees are cut – Single tree selection – widely spaced trees are cut – Group tree selection – small patches of trees are cut All methods disturb habitat and affect species – Change forest structure and composition – Increased runoff, flooding, erosion, siltation, landslides

27. Harvesting Forests Seed-tree and shelterwood logging Clear-cut logging Selection logging

28. Salvage logging Removal of dead trees following a natural disturbance It seems logical, but is really destructive – Snags (standing dead trees) provide nesting and roosting cavities for countless animals – Removing timber from recently burned areas increases erosion and soil damage – Impedes forest regeneration and promotes future fires

29. Forest Fires Surface fires – Burn only in forests’ underbrush – Little damage to mature trees – Protect the forest from more harmful fires by removing underbrush and dead materials Crown fires – May start on ground or in canopies of forests that have not experienced surface fires – Spread quickly – High temperatures are huge threat to wildlife, human life and property Ground fires – Smoldering fires that take place in swamps or bogs – Can burn underground for days or weeks – Originated from surface fires and are difficult to detect and extinguish

30. Prescribed Fires Prescribed (controlled) burns – burning areas of forests under carefully controlled conditions – Clear away fuel loads, nourish soil, encourage growth of new vegetation – Are time-intensive – Are impeded by public misunderstanding and political interference Healthy Forests Restoration Act (2003) – promotes removal of small trees, underbrush, and dead trees – Passed in response to forest fires

31. National Forest System Depletion of eastern U.S. forests caused alarm National forest system – public lands set aside to grow trees, produce timber, protect watersheds, and ensure future timber supplies – 77 million ha (191 million acres)—8% of U.S. land area The U.S. Forest Service was established in 1905 – Manages forests for the greatest good of the greatest number in the long run – Management includes logging and replanting trees

32. Federal agencies own land in the U.S.

33. The National Forest Management Act (1976) Every national forest must formulate plans for renewable resource management that: – Consider both economic and environmental factors – Provide for and protect regional diversity – Ensure research and monitoring of management – Permit only sustainable harvest levels – Ensure that profit alone does not guide harvest method – Protect soils and wetlands – Assess all impacts before logging to protect resources

34. New forestry U.S. Forest Service programs: – Manage wildlife, non-game animals, endangered species – Push for ecosystem-based management – Run programs for ecological restoration New forestry – timber cuts that mimic natural events – Sloppy clear-cuts mimic windstorms

35. Sustainable Forestry Sustainable forest certification – products produced sustainably can be certified by organizations – The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) has the strictest standards – Companies such as Home Depot sell sustainable wood, encouraging better logging practices – Consumers look for logos to buy sustainably produced timber Strong certification standards drive sustainability

36. Federal Parks and Reserves National parks – public lands protected from resource extraction and development – Open to nature appreciation and recreation – Yellowstone National Park was established in 1872 The Antiquities Act (1906) lets the president declare public lands as national monuments – Which may later become national parks

37. The National Park Service (NPS) Created in 1916 to administer parks and monuments – 392 sites totaling 34 million ha (84 million acres) – Includes national historic sites, national recreation areas, national wild and scenic rivers – 285 million visitors in 2009 These parks are “the best idea we ever had” There are also 3,700 state parks across the U.S.

38. National Wildlife Refuges Begun in 1903 by President Theodore Roosevelt – 39 million ha (96 million acres) in 550 sites – The Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument added 22 million ha (55 million acres) U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) – Administers wildlife refuges, serving as havens – But allows hunting, fishing, wildlife observation, photography, education – Managed for waterfowl and non-game species – Restores marshes and grasslands

39. Why create parks and reserves? People establish parks and reserves to: – Preserve areas with enormous or unusual scenic features, such as the Grand Canyon – Offer recreational value: hiking, fishing, hunting, etc. – Generate revenue from ecotourism – Offer peace of mind, health, exploration, wonder, etc. – Protect areas that provide ecosystem services – Use sites that are otherwise economically not valuable and are therefore easy to protect – Preserve biodiversity

40. Wilderness Areas Wilderness areas – are off-limits to development For hiking, nature study, etc. – Must have minimal impact Grazing and mining were allowed as political compromise Established in federal lands – Overseen by the agencies that administer those areas 756 areas, 44 million ha (109 million acres) Wilderness is necessary to ensure that humans don’t occupy and modify all natural areas

41. Not everyone supports land set-asides Some western states want resource extraction and development The wise-use movement – individuals and industries opposed to environmental protection want: – To protect private property, oppose government regulation – Federal lands transferred to state or private hands – Motorized recreation on public lands – Farmers, ranchers, loggers, mineral, and fossil fuel industries

42. Nonfederal entities also protect land Each U.S. state has agencies that manage resources on public lands – So do counties and municipalities Land trusts – local or regional organizations that purchase land to protect it – The Nature Conservancy is the world’s largest land trust – Trusts own 690,000 ha (1.7 million acres) and protect an additional 4.1 million ha (10.2 million acres) – Jackson Hole, Wyoming is protected by a land trust