1. Advanced Dynamical Meteorology Roger K. Smith CH 04

2. Energetics of waves on stratified shear flows U(z) z Boussinesq fluid Wave energy equation (see Ex. 3.4) E = mean wave energy density F = mean rate of working of the disturbance pressure force in the vertical =

3. In the case of a non-moving medium (U = 0), F is interpreted as a mean flux of wave energy and equals Ew g (Ex. 2.11). It is tempting to retain this interpretation of F in a moving fluid and to regard the term U z in as a 'source' of mean wave energy associated with the interaction of the wave with the basic shear, U z. This interpretation can be misleading! Question: What is meant by 'energy flux' in a moving medium?

4. To see why in ought not to be interpreted as an energy source, consider the equation for the mean flow to second-order in wave amplitude. Full horizontal momentum equation in flux form u* is the total horizontal wind speed Put u = deviation from the mean wind

5. mean refers to an average over a wavelength: or for an non-periodic disturbance which vanishes as x   : Substitute for u* in and average the mean flow momentum equation

6. Assume that the wave amplitude is sufficiently small u = U(z) and w = 0 the interaction between the perturbation and the basic flow can be ignored. However, the waves have a second-order effect in amplitude on the mean flow governed by (see ADM) the mean flow kinetic energy equation

7. local second-order changes in the mean flow are associated with nonzero values of this term should appears as the "source term" in Rewrite as Interpret as the total or net energy flux. Not Galilean invariant

8. Put and whereand the u i etc. are O(1), in Assumes that the wave-induced vertical motion is zero at Wave energy equationMean flow kinetic energy At Perturbation analysis

9. wave energy plus mean flow energy to the divergence of the vertical advective flux of total kinetic energy = the divergence of the first nonzero term in the expression

10. Show that the perturbation and mean flow equations: form an energetically closed system in the sense that, for a free wave with and is a constant recall that Exercise

11. The perturbation equations for waves in a Boussinesq fluid are: Look for steady travelling wave solutions of the form The nonacceleration theorem

12. Put V = U - c

13. This is the Boussinesq form of Scorer’s equation We can write the components of asetc. complex conjugate Then, for any two dependent variables a and b

14. Multiply by and use Add this equation to its complex conjugate and use

15. Also, for wave perturbations such as For a steady (in amplitude) sinusoidal wave  E/  t = 0 and from and

16. U = c or and the waves do not force any second-order acceleration of the mean flow

17. This result is now known as the nonacceleration theorem. It was first obtained in a slightly less general form by Eliassen and Palm (1960) and has been shown to be a quite general result by Andrews and McIntyre (1978). The quantity is the total vertical flux of wave energy. and For a steady (in amplitude) sinusoidal wave The nonacceleration theorem

18. For waves which radiate vertically (0 < |k| < l), there exists a downward flux of mean horizontal momentum ( ). is independent of height and equal to the drag per unit wavelength exerted by the boundary on the airstream (see Ex. 3.5). where sgn(mk) > 0 for upward propagation. Evidently, the momentum flux originates at infinity, where, presumably, the drag exerted by the boundary on the air stream acts. This is at first sight puzzling ! Flow over sinusoidal orography

19. When a general airstream U(z) flows over mountain ridge and produces upward radiating waves, a forward wave drag is exerted on the mountain. The mountain exerts a drag on the airstream Question: How is the stress on the airstream distributed? i.e. at what level(s) does the drag act on the airstream? For steady waves, the nonacceleration theorem rules out the possibility of interaction except at a critical level where U = c, a level where the intrinsic frequency of the waves vanishes (see Eq. 3.4). In the case of stationary mountain waves, c = 0.

20.  Linear theory suggests that at a critical level, the wave is almost completely absorbed, leading to a deceleration of the mean flow at that level.  However, nonlinear and viscous effects may be important near the critical level.  I shall not address the critical-layer problem in this course - for further details, see the important paper by Booker and Bretherton (1967).  For a propagating wave packet with a spectrum of horizontal phase speeds, there may be a range of critical levels.  Then absorption by the mean flow takes place in a finite layer.  For stationary mountain waves, c = 0 for all Fourier components.

21. The analysis of unsteady wave development and of wave propagation in arbitrary shear flows is mathematically difficult. For unsteady wave development Laplace transforms methods for initial-value problems usually lead to uninvertible transforms. For wave propagation in arbitrary shear flows, typical eigenvalue problems are analytically intractable, or at best, very complicated. Some analytical progress and further physical insight may be obtained by studying slowly-modulated wave trains or wave packets, in which the waves are locally plane, with wavelength and amplitude varying significantly only over a space scale of many wavelengths

22. Theory of Acheson (1976, pp 452 – 455): Assume the waves have constant frequency  and horizontal wavenumber k, but their amplitude varies with height and time on scales very long compared with one wavelength and one period, respectively. Define 'slow' variables: Z =  z and T =  t, where  is a dimensionless measure of how slowly the wave train is modulated. Slowly varying means that at any given height/time the wave amplitude varies by a factor O(1) over a height/time scale of O(  –1 ) wavelengths/periods. Slowly varying wave trains or wave packets

23. Assume a Boussinesq fluid with N constant, but with a basic shear (U(Z),0,0). Consider linear wave perturbations with streamfunction where A local vertical wavenumber defined in terms of the phase function  (z) is Similar expansions are taken for other flow quantities.

24. Replace time and height derivatives by and Term describing the effect of vertical shear appears only at O(  ). The multiple-scaling technique

25. Substitution of the expansions for u, w, P, gives to O(  0 ) a locally-plane wave solution, identical with that which would be obtained if U were a constant. For this solution  *(Z) =   kU(Z) is the intrinsic frequency.  * is a function of Z through U(Z) and m(Z). Zero-order solution

26. At O(  ) in the expansion, the equations for subscript ´2´ quantities become: Eliminating û 2, … etc. we obtain an expression of the form = expression involving T and Z derivatives of subscript '1' quantities where the coefficient of is zero. First-order solution

27. = [expression involving T and Z derivatives of subscript '1' quantities] This expression, when set equal to zero, gives a solvability condition for the O(  ) problem. This 4 * 4 set of linear equations has the general form Ax = b, where A is a 4 * 4 matrix with det A = 0 and x and b are column vectors. It has a non-unique solution, but only if b is orthogonal to the solution y of the adjoint homogenous problem A´y = 0.

28. After some algebraic manipulation (see Appendix to ADM), the solvability condition for may be written in the form where called the wave action is the local vertical component of the group velocity expresses the conservation of wave action Wave action

29. Assuming that the mean second-order perturbation to the basic flow forced by the foregoing slowly-varying wave varies only with Z and T, the mean horizontal momentum equation may be written where, from continuity Show that Moreover, show that if u 2 = 0 in the absence of waves (i.e., when A = 0), then Exercise

30. when the amplitude of the wave is independent of time, Aw g is independent of height. when the wave amplitude is steady, this is true even when no restriction is placed on how fast U varies over a vertical wavelength. is independent of height.

31. Consider now a wave train set up by the horizontal translation with speed c of a corrugated boundary at z = 0. The corrugations are assumed to increase gradually in amplitude (from zero at time t) on the slow time scale T as governed by the formula  (x,t;T) = A(T) cos k(x – ct) As the slowly-modulated wave train propagates upwards past any given level, the local wave energy density E will slowly increase to a maximum and (in the absence of dissipation) then diminish again to zero as the wave train passes. Thus

32. the local modification to the mean flow varies similarly, the mean flow being accelerated (decelerated) if c > U (c < U). According to If the forcing  (x,t;T) = A(T) cos k(x – ct) slowly attains a constant amplitude A 0 on the time scale T and persists at that amplitude thereafter, the wave train will consist of a precursor (which contains O(  -1 ) wavelengths and whose amplitude increases with depth from effectively zero to that amplitude A 0 which the source ultimately attains) and a lower part of constant amplitude A 0 extending all the way down to the source.

33. In particular, what we call for convenience the 'front' of the wave train moves upwards at this speed. When U is a constant, so are m and w g and reduces to the statement that amplitude modulations propagate upwards at the group velocity. the tolerably well-defined highest point at which the amplitude is A 0

34. z wave front E wave energy wgtwgt U U(z) z c > U c < U U Wave energy density E as a function of height for a wave source switched on at z = 0 at t = 0 (left) and corresponding mean flow changes (right).

35. We may now understand the result that for steady flow over sinusoidal topography there is a downward flux of mean horizontal momentum from infinity. If we imagine such a flow to be established by the gradual evolution of the topography as described by  (x,t;T) = A(T) cos k(x – ct) with c = 0, it is clear that the source of the downward momentum flux in the steady wave regime (i.e. at heights below z = w g t) is the deceleration of the mean flow in the region constituting the front of the wave train. At no finite time is there a momentum flux at infinity.

36. Wave forcing in general: Eliassen-Palm fluxes Assume quasi-geostrophic, Boussinesq, N 2 constant. The zonally-averaged zonal momentum equation is The zonally-averaged buoyancy equation is Quasi-geostrophy mean frictional torque diabatic buoyancy source Continuity

37. Take

38. Define a residual mean meridional circulation

39. The Eliassen-Palm flux The effects of eddies on the mean zonal flow are characterized solely by the divergence of the vector F EP, which is called the Eliassen-Palm flux.

40. The residual streamfunction Define the residual streamfunction  by Then  satisfies A derivation for a deep atmosphere is given by Holton (1992, Chapter 10).

41. Application to QBO

42.  The quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO) has the following observed features: 1.Zonally symmetric easterly and westerly wind regimes alternate regularly with periods varying from about 24 to 30 months. 2.Successive regimes first appear above 30 km but propagate downward at a rate of 1 km/month. 3.The downward propagation occurs without loss of amplitude between 30 and 23 km. but there is rapid attenuation below 23 km. 4.The oscillation is symmetric about the equator with a maximum amplitude of about 20 ms  1 and an approx- imately Gaussian distribution in latitude with a half- width of about 12 o. The Quasi-biennial oscillation

44.  The main factors that a theoretical model of the QBO must explain are: 1.the approximate biennial periodicity, 2.the downward propagation without loss of amplitude, 3.the occurrence of zonally symmetric westerlies at the equator.  Because a zonal ring of air in westerly motion at the equator has an angular momentum per unit mass greater than that of the earth, no plausible zonally symmetric advection process could explain the westerly phase of the oscillation.  Therefore, there must be a vertical transfer of momentum by eddies to produce the westerly accelerations in the downward-propagating shear zone of the QBO. The facts to explain

45.  Observational and theoretical studies have confirmed that vertically propagating equatorial Kelvin and Rossby- gravity waves provide the zonal momentum sources necessary to drive the QBO.  Kelvin waves with upward energy propagation transfer westerly momentum upwards (i.e., u' and w' are positively correlated so that u'w' > 0). The Kelvin wave The structure of the Kelvin wave  Thus, the Kelvin waves can provide the needed source of westerly momentum for the QBO.

46. cold warm low high W E warm longitude height Longitudinal-height section along the equator showing pressure, temperature and perturbation wind oscillations in the Kelvin wave. (After Wallace, 1973). cold warm direction of phase propagation

47. warm low high W E warm longitude height Longitudinal-height section at a latitude north of the equator showing pressure, temperature and perturbation wind oscillations in the mixed Rossby-gravity wave. cold warm direction of phase propagation high cold    

48.  Vertical momentum transfer by the Rossby-gravity mode requires special consideration. The previous figure shows that u'w' > 0 also for the Rossby-gravity mode. The mixed Rossby-gravity wave  However, the total effect of this wave on the mean flow cannot be ascertained from the vertical momentum flux alone.  This mode has a strong poleward heat flux v'T' > 0, which provides a contribution to the forcing of the mean flow that dominates over the vertical momentum flux, and the net result is that the Rossby-gravity mode transfers easterly momentum upward.  This mode can provide the momentum source for the easterly phase of the QBO.

49.  We have seen that gravity wave modes do not produce any net mean flow acceleration unless the waves are transient or they arc mechanically or thermally damped.  Similar considerations apply to the equatorial Kelvin and Rossby-gravity modes.  Equatorial stratospheric waves arc subject to thermal damping by infrared radiation and to both thermal and mechanical damping by small-scale turbulent motions.  Such damping is strongly dependent on the Doppler- shifted frequency of the waves.  As the Doppler-shifted frequency decreases, the vertical component of group velocity also decreases, and a longer time is available for the wave energy to be damped as it propagates through a given vertical distance. Mean flow acceleration

50.  Thus, the westerly Kelvin waves tend to be damped preferentially in westerly shear zones, where their Doppler-shifted frequencies decrease with height.  The momentum flux convergence associated with this damping provides a westerly acceleration of the mean flow and thus causes the westerly shear zone to descend.  Similarly, the easterly Rossby-gravity waves are damped in easterly shear zones, thereby causing an easterly acceleration and descent of the easterly shear zone.  We conclude that the QBO is indeed excited primarily by vertically propagating equatorial wave modes through wave transience and damping, which causes westerly accelerations in westerly shear zones and easterly accelerations in easterly shear zones. The roles of Kelvin and MRG waves

51. Longitude-height structure of thermally-damped Kelvin and MRG waves Kelvin waveMRG wave The net mean flow acceleration

52. The effects of dissipation: a WKB approximation Kelvin wave (exists for u(z) < c) m(z) given by group velocity m(z) given by group velocity MRG wave (westward propagating relative to u) See also, Plumb, JAS, 1977, pp1847-1858

53. Instability of a zonal flow due to wave absorption

55. Laboratory demonstration of the QBO Schematic representation of the apparatus used in the Plumb and McEwan laboratory analogue of the QBO.

56. The Holton-Lindzen model of the QBO Time-height section of mean zonal wind at the equator in the Holton-Lindzen model of the QBO. Contours are at 10 ms -1 intervals, and a semi-annual oscillation is imposed at the 35-km level. From Holton-Lindzen, 1972

57. The End