1. Carole Ford ENGL 7731

2. THE BUILDING BLOCKS

3. WORD  Classified into eight groups called lexical categories or, more commonly, parts of speech

4. PHRASE  A group of words (or syntactical structure) that acts like a single part of speech: verb phrase  acts like a verb prepositional phrase  acts like an adjective or adverb appositive phrase  acts like a noun gerund phrase  acts like a noun participial phrase  acts like an adjective infinitive phrase  acts like an adjective, adverb, or noun

5. CLAUSE  A group of words (or syntactical structure) containing a subject and a verb Independent (main) clause ○ Also contain a “complete thought” ○ Can stand alone (simple sentence) ○ Can “partner” with other clauses to make more complicated structures Dependent (subordinate) clause ○ Cannot stand alone ○ Acts as a unit as a single part of speech Noun clauses  acts like a noun Adjective clause  acts like an adjective Adverb clause  acts like an adverb

6. SENTENCE  A group of words (or syntactical structure) containing a subject, a verb, and a complete thought Simple sentence (one independent clause) Compound sentence (two or more independent clauses) Complex sentence (one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses) Compound/complex sentence (two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause)

7. PHRASES

8. NONVERBAL PHRASES  PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES  APPOSITIVE PHRASES  ABSOLUTE PHRASES

9. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES  A prepositional phrase is a group of words beginning with a preposition and ending with a noun or pronoun known as the object of the preposition (OP), which may or may not have modifiers The most frequently used of all phrases Always act as modifiers Can be found anywhere in the sentence Punctuation: ○ A phrase of 4 or more words at the beginning of a sentence is followed by a comma ○ A string of several smaller phrases at the beginning of a sentence is followed by a comma

10. (PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES, continued)  Adjective phrase Modifies a noun or pronoun Answers which one? What kind? Usually follows the word it modifies Multiple phrases often piggy back each other with a succeeding phrase modifying the one before it

11. (PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES, continued)  Adverb phrase Modifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb Answers when? where? why? how? under what condition? When modifying a verb, it can appear at the beginning of the sentence, near the verb, or at the end of the sentence When modifying an adjective or adverb, it will follow the word it modifies

12. APPOSITIVE PHRASES  An appositive is a noun, intensive pronoun, or personal pronoun that renames or identifies a noun or pronoun that immediately precedes it Mrs. Jones herself assigned you to this class.  An appositive phrase is an appositive with modifiers Mrs. Jones, your English teacher, is absent today.

13. (APPOSITIVE PHRASES, continued)  Any noun (or pronoun in a noun position) may have an appositive—subject, predicate noun (PN), direct object (DO), indirect object (IO), objective complement (OC), or object of a preposition (OP),  Most examples immediately follow the nouns/pronouns they rename. In special cases, appositives can appear later in the sentence.  Punctuation follows the “essential/nonessential” comma rule. If the information in the appositive phrase is necessary to identify the renamed noun, it is “essential” to the meaning of the sentence and no commas are necessary. If the information in the appositive phrase is not necessary to identify the renamed noun, it is “nonessential” to the meaning of the sentence and will be set off by commas.

14. ABSOLUTE PHRASES  An absolute phrase is a group of words containing a noun followed by a participle or participial phrase Usually found at the beginning of the sentence Independent of the rest of the sentence; does not modify a specific word in the sentence Indicates a circumstance and loosely modifies the remainder of the sentence Always set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma

15. (ABSOLUTE PHRASES, continued)  Can be created from an adverb clause expressing a circumstance by omitting the subordinating conjunction and replacing the verb with a participle  Because the woman was elderly, the worker took her arm to assist her across the street.  The woman being elderly, the worker took her arm to assist her across the street.  Because the woman was faithful to her cause, the public began to take notice of her.  The woman being faithful to her cause, the public began to take notice of her

16. VERBAL PHRASES  PARTICIPIAL PHRASES  GERUND PHRASES  INFINITIVE PHRASES A verbal is a verb form used as another part of speech—a noun, an adjective, or an adverb A verbal phrase is the verbal and any subjects, objects, or modifiers of the verbal

17. PARTICIPIAL PHRASES  A participle looks like a verb, but acts like an adjective Is the –ing form or the 3 rd principal part of the verb (planning, planned, having planned, being planned, having been planned) Expresses an action that is occurring simultaneously with the main verb in the sentence Modifies a noun or pronoun in the sentence Usually comes before the noun or pronoun that it modifies ○ The approaching storm looked ominous. ○ The little boy stared at his broken toy. ○ Having been convicted, the defendant went to jail.

18. (PARTICIPIAL PHRASES, continued)  A participial phrase contains a participle and any modifiers or complements of the participle  May appear before or after the word it modifies  Broken in the scuffle, the toy lay in pieces on the floor.  The cheerleaders, chosen before school, have prepared for the first pep rally.  Punctuation:  When it precedes the noun it modifies, the participial phrase is always set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma.  When it follows the noun it modifies, the participial phrase is punctuated according to the essential/nonessential comma rule.

19. GERUND PHRASES  A gerund looks like a verb, but acts like a noun. Is the –ing form of the verb (breaking, having broken, being broken, having been broken) Performs as a subject (S), predicate noun (PN), direct object (DO), object of a preposition (OP), appositive (APP), and occasionally, an indirect object (IO) If some participles also end in –ing, how can you tell if a particular word is a gerund? ○ Because the –ing names an activity, you can substitute this activity for the gerund ○ Because a pronoun can always replace a noun, the word something can replace the gerund

20. (GERUND PHRASES, continued)  A gerund phrase is the gerund, its subject, its object, and any modifiers. Because it is part verb, a gerund can have a “subject” which identifies the doer of the action; such a “subject” is usually a possessive noun or pronoun Because it is part verb, the gerund can have an object which is the receiver of the action ○ This committee does not approve of his planning the campaign for me. Because it is part verb, it can be modified by adverbs. ○ Running fast makes my feet hurt.

21. INFINITIVE PHRASES  An infinitive looks like a verb, but acts like a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. Usually formed with to and the 1 st principal part; (to plan, to have planned, to be planned, to have been planned, to be planning) Sometimes the to is understood (Help me get home.) Infinitives used as nouns can perform any noun function (I don’t like to sing) Infinitives used as adjectives modify nouns and pronouns (John is the person to contact.) Infinitives used as adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs (He seems ready to scream.)

22. (INFINITIVE PHRASES, continued)  An infinitive phrase includes the infinitive with any modifiers and complements  Infinitive phrases used as adjectives and adverbs usually need no punctuation  This looks like the road to take right now.  I use a calculator to avoid mistakes.  Infinitive phrases used as nouns usually need no punctuation, unless used as an appositive  I don’t like to wash dishes.

23. CLAUSES

24. INDEPENDENT CLAUSES  Also known as main clauses  Contain a subject, verb, and a complete thought  Can stand alone as a simple sentence  Found in all sentences

25. DEPENDENT CLAUSES  Also known as subordinate clauses  Contains a subject and a verb, but not a complete thought  Cannot stand alone  Found only in complex and compound- complex sentences ADJECTIVE CLAUSES ADVERB CLAUSES NOUN CLAUSES

26. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES  Modifies a noun or pronoun  Answers which one? What kind?  Usually follows the word it modifies Can begin with a relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, that) ○ Signal word functions as a pronoun to replace its antecedent which is the word the clause modifies in the main clause ○ If non-possessive, it also functions as a subject of an object within the adjective clause ○ Whose functions as a possessive determiner within the adjective clause ○ That is occasionally understood when it functions as the DO or OP in the adjective clause

27. (ADJECTIVE CLAUSES, continued) Can begin with a relative adverb (when, where, why) ○ An adjective clause beginning with when modifies a time noun (such a day or era) ○ An adjective clause beginning with where modifies a place noun (such as California or house) ○ An adjective clause beginning with why modifies a cause noun (such as reason or cause) Signal word functions as an adverb to modify the verb in the adjective clause itself

28. (ADJECTIVE CLAUSES, continued) Punctuated according to the “essential/nonessential” comma rule ○ If the clause contains information which is needed to identify the noun or pronoun modified, it is essential—it does not need commas. ○ If the clause contains extra information (It can be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence), it is nonessential—it should be set off from the rest of the sentence with two commas

29. ADVERB CLAUSES  Modifies the verb Answers when? where? why? how? under what condition? Appears at the beginning of the sentence, near the verb, or at the end of the sentence  Modifies an adjective or other adverb Answers to what extent? Follows the word it modifies  Elliptical clauses are possible—some words can be “understood”

30. (ADVERB CLAUSES, continued)  Begin with subordinating conjunctions Time– when, while, as, before, after, since, now that, once, until, till, whenever Place— where, wherever Cause— because, since, as, inasmuch as Condition– if, on condition of, provided that, unless Contrast– whereas, while Manner– as, as if, as though, however Purpose– so that, so, that, in order that, lest

31. (ADVERB CLAUSES, continued) Purpose– so that, so, that, in order that, lest Concession– although, even though, though, even if Comparison and degree– than, as…as Result-- so that, so…that, such…that  Can also begin with indefinite relative pronouns ending in –ever (whoever, whatever, etc.)

32. (ADVERB CLAUSES, continued)  Punctuation rules: An introductory adverb clauses at the beginning of the sentence must be followed by a comma An adverb clause which interrupts the main clause will be set off with a comma before and a comma after An adverb clause at the end of the sentence does not need a comma.

33. NOUN CLAUSES  Can perform any noun function in the sentence—subject, PN, DO, IO, OP, APP; can be replaced by the pronouns someone or something  Can appear anywhere in the sentence  Begins with Subordinating conjunctions–that (occasionally omitted), whether (indicates a choice) Indefinite relative pronouns–whoever, whomever, whosever, whichever, whatever Indefinite relative adverbs–when, where, why, how

34. (NOUN CLAUSES, continued)  No special punctuation rules except that appositives would be set off by commas

35. SENTENCE PATTERNS

36. ACTION VERB PATTERNS  There are four action verb sentence patterns— one with an intransitive verb and three transitive verbs. In all of the sentences, something is happening. An intransitive verb requires no object to complete the meaning. ○ S-InAV In this pattern, the subject has an action verb, but there is no object. Usually the verb is followed by an adverb or a prepositional phrase (used as an adverb). These words or phrases will answer questions such as when? where? how? why? -Susan sang loudly. Susan sang in the shower.

37. ACTION VERB PATTERNS A transitive verb requires a direct object to complete its meaning ○ S-TrAV-DO In this pattern, the subject has an action verb that is followed by a direct object. Say the subject, then the verb, then ask “whom or what?” The answer is your direct object. -Susan sang a song, ○ S-TrAV-IO-DO In this pattern, the subject has an action verb followed by a direct object, but between them, there is also an indirect object. Say the subject, then the verb, then the DO, and then ask “To/for whom?” or “To/for what?” The answer is your indirect object. (In normal word order, the indirect object will always be between the verb and the direct object. -My mother gave me a nice sweater.

38. ACTION VERB PATTERNS ○ S-TrAV-DO-OC In this pattern, the subject has an action verb followed by a direct object. The direct object is then followed by a word that renames or describes the direct object. Say the subject, then the verb, then the DO, and then ask “What?” The answer is the objective complement; the OC can be a noun or an adjective. (In normal word order, the objective complement always follows the direct object.) -We elected him president of the senior class. -We painted the room green.

39. BEING VERB PATTERNS  There are three state-of-being verb sentence patterns—one of which must contain a form of the verb be (followed by an adverb or prepositional phrase used as an adverb) and two which can contain any linking verb. In these sentences the subjects are described; there is no action happening.  Possible linking verbs: Be and seem Sense words (Look, feel, sound, smell, taste) GRABST (grow, remain, appear, become, stay, turn)

40. (BEING VERB PATTERNS, continued) S-be-adv ○ In this pattern, the subject is followed by a form of the verb be, which is then followed by an adverb or a prepositional phrase used as an adverb. These words or phrases will answer questions such as when? where? how? why? John is here. John was in the other room.

41. (BEING VERB PATTERNS, continued) S-LV-PN ○ In this pattern, the subject is connected by a linking verb to a noun or pronoun which renames it. Think of the linking verb as an equal sign. Say the subject, then the verb, then ask who? or what? Barack Obama is our President. Classical music remains my favorite.

42. (BEING VERB PATTERNS, continued) S-LV-PA ○ In this pattern, the subject is connected to an adjective (in the predicate half of the sentence) which describes it. You can usually mentally re-arrange the words so that the adjective will logically modify the subject. My teacher is friendly. (friendly teacher) The steak tastes salty. (salty steak)