1. Social and Personality Development in the Preschool Years Chapter 8 Robert S. Feldman Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. Looking Ahead How do preschool-age children develop a concept of themselves? How do children develop their sense of racial identity and gender? In what sorts of social relationships and play do preschool- age children engage? What sorts of disciplinary styles do parents employ, and what effects do they have?

3. Looking Ahead What factors contribute to child abuse and neglect? How do children develop a moral sense? How does aggression develop in preschool-age children?

4. FORMING A SENSE OF SELF

5. Psychosocial Development: Resolving the Conflicts INITIATIVE = desire to act independently from parents and becoming autonomous GUILT = guilt of unintended consequences resulting in shame and self-doubt 3 to 6 years

6. Self- Concept Definition - Identity - Set of beliefs about what we are like as individuals

7. Preschooler Self-Concept Not “accurate” More optimistic Overestimates of abilities

8. Cultural Influence View of self culturally bound Collectivist Orientation: Asian Individualistic Orientation: Western View of self family tied View of self individually directed

9. Psychosocial Development Becoming their own person Making own decisions Shaping kind of person they are becoming

10. Developing Racial and Ethnic Awareness Developmental Diversity Racial and ethnic identity begins to formalize Differences in skin color noticed early in life Cultural meaning attached to differences comes later

11. Developmental Diversity By age 3-4 years many preschoolers: Differentiate races Mirror social attitudes

12. Race Dissonance Minority children indicate preferences for majority values or people Result of powerful influence of dominant white culture NOT disparagement of own racial characteristics

13. Ethnic Identity Emerges somewhat later than racial identity Usually less conspicuous than race Preschoolers who were bilingual, speaking both Spanish and English, are more apt to be aware of ethnic identity

14. Gender Identity Sense of being male or female Well established by preschool years By age 2 years: Consistently label themselves and others as male and female

15. Gender Constancy Kohlberg (1966) By age 4-5, children develop understanding of gender constancy Belief that people are permanently males or females because of fixed, unchangeable biological factors Gender schemas occur well before gender constancy is understood

16. Gender and Play Differences noted in play of male and female preschoolers Males: More rough and tumble play Same sex playmate preference around 3 Females: Organized games and role playing Same sex playmate preference around 2

17. Gender Expectations Expectations about gender-appropriate behavior more rigid and gender- stereotyped than adults up to 5 years Gender outweighs ethnic variables

18. Snips, and snails…. Preschoolers expect boys to demonstrate: – Competence – Independence – Forcefulness – Competitiveness

19. Sugar and spice... Preschoolers expect girls to demonstrate: – Warmth – Expressiveness – Nurturance – Submissiveness

20. Theoretical Perspectives on Gender Biological – Inborn, genetic factors produce gender differences Psychoanalytic – Gender differences result of moving through series of stages related to biological urges Social learning – Gender related behavior learned from observations of others’ behaviors Cognitive – Gender schemes form lens through which world is viewed

21. Psychoanalytic Perspective on Gender Males and females go through different identification process Identifying with same sex parents enables child to adopt parents’ gender attitudes and values

22. Social Learning Perspective on Gender Social Learning Perspective on Gender Gender related behaviors and expectations learned from observing others Books, media, television perpetuate gender related behavior and expectations

23. Cognitive Perspective on Gender Gender schema or cognitive framework organizes relevant gender information Preschoolers begin developing “rules” about what is right and inappropriate for males and females

24. Bem There…Done That Sandra Bem and androgynous children Encouraged to follow gender roles that encompass characteristics thought typical of both sexes Male-appropriate and female-appropriate traits

25. Review and Apply REVIEW According to Erikson’s ____ development theory, preschool-age children move from the ____ -versus- shame-and-doubt stage to the ____ -versus-guilt stage. During the preschool years, children develop their ____ ____, beliefs about themselves that they derive from their own ____, their parents’ ____, and ____. Racial and ethnic awareness begins to form in the ____ years. Gender awareness also develops in the preschool years. Explanations of this phenomenon include ____, ____, ____, and ____ approaches.

26. Review and Apply APPLY What sorts of activities might you encourage a preschool boy to undertake to encourage him to adopt a less stereotypical gender schema? How would you relate Erikson’s stages of trust versus mistrust, autonomy versus shame and doubt, and initiative versus guilt to the issue of secure attachment discussed in an earlier chapter?

27. FRIENDS AND FAMILY: PRESCHOOLERS’ SOCIAL LIVES

28. Preschoolers’ Social Lives Increased interactions with the world at large Peers with special qualities Relationships based on companionship, play, entertainment Friendship focused on completion of shared activities

29. A Friend Indeed… You Can’t Come to my Birthday Party! View of friendship evolves with age and older preschoolers See friendship as continuing state and stable relationship Begin to understand concepts such as trust, support, shared interest

30. Playing by the Rules: The Work of Play Children are interested in maintaining smooth social relationships with friends Children try to avoid and/or solve disagreements

31. Learning to Play… Playing to Learn Play is critical to the overall development of young children Changes over time Becomes more sophisticated, interactive, cooperative Gradually more dependent on social and cognitive skills

32. She loves me, he loves me not! Some children are more readily liked by peers than others Popular children Physical attractiveness, outgoing, social and speaking more, smiling more, empathetic Unpopular children Aggressive, disruptive, imposing, less cooperative, less turn-taking

33. How can adults help?

34. Categorizing Play Functional play: simple, repetitive activities typical of 3-year-olds that may involve objects or repetitive muscular movements Constructive play: activities in which children manipulate objects to produce or build something

35. Building…inside and out! By age four, children engage in constructive play that: Tests developing cognitive skills Practices motor skills Facilitates problem solving Teaches cooperation

36. Social Aspects of Play Parten (1932) Parallel Play Children play with similar toys, in a similar manner, but do not interact with each other

37. Social Aspects of Play Parten (1932) Onlooker Play Children simply watch each other play

38. Social Aspects of Play Parten (1932) Solitary Play Children play by themselves

39. Social Aspects of Play Parten (1932) Associative Play Children interact with one another in groups of two or more Children share or borrow toys or materials, but do not do the same thing

40. Social Aspects of Play Parten (1932) Cooperative Play Children play with one another, take turns, play games, and devise contests

41. The Smallest Great Pretenders Nature of pretend, or make-believe, play changes during the preschool period: Becomes increasingly unrealistic and more imaginative Change from using only realistic objects to using less concrete ones

42. What are you thinking, anyway? Preschoolers’ Theory of Mind Related to: Brain maturation Hormonal changes Developing language Opportunities for social interaction and pretend play Cultural background

43. Preschoolers’ Family Lives Increased number of single parent headed families Still most children do not experience upheaval and turmoil Strong, positive relationships within families encourage relationships with other children

44. Effective Parenting: Teaching Desired Behavior AUTHORITARIAN – Exhibit controlling, rigid, cold style – Value strict, unquestioning obedience AUTHORITATIVE – Set firm, clear, consistent limits – Allow disagreement and use reasoning, explanations, consequences – Supportive parenting Types of Parenting and Discipline Patterns (Baumrind, 1980)

45. Effective Parenting: Teaching Desired Behavior PERMISSIVE- INDIFFERENT – Uninvolved in children’s lives – Set few limits PERMISSIVE- INDULGENT – Involved with children – Place little or no limits or control on children’s behavior Types of Parenting and Discipline Patterns (Baumrind, 1980)

46. Does parental discipline style result in differences in child behavior?

47. See how they grow… Authoritarian parents = withdrawn, socially awkward children Permissive parents = dependent, moody, low social skilled children Uninvolved parents = emotionally detached, unloved, and insecure children Authoritative parents = independent, friendly, self-assertive, and cooperative.

48. Remember… Baumrind research findings chiefly apply to Western societies Childrearing practices that parents are urged to follow reflect cultural perspectives nature of children role of parents No single parenting pattern or style is likely to be universally appropriate or likely invariably to produce successful children

49. From Research to Practice: Teaching Parents to Teach Their Children Parent coaching Offers specific child-rearing strategies Provides basics of child development to help put child’s behavior in perspective Not validated by empirical research

50. Child Abuse and Psychological Maltreatment Five children are killed daily by caretakers 140,000 are physically injured Three million are abused or neglected annually in U.S.

51. Range of Abuse and Maltreatment of Children in the US

52. True or False? Child abuse can occur in any home or child care setting!

53. Stressful environments increase likelihood for abuse Poverty Single-parent homes High levels of marital discord Substance abuse

54. What else? Vague demarcation between permissible and impermissible forms of physical violence Line between “spanking” and “beating” is not clear Spankings begun in anger can escalate into abuse Privacy of child care setting Unrealistic expectations

55. So why then does abuse occur? Children are more likely to be victimized when they are: Fussy Resistant to control Slow to adapt to new situations Overly anxious Frequent bedwetters Developmentally delayed

56. It is crucial to remember… Labeling children as high risk for abuse does not make them responsible for their abuse

57. What do the experts tell us about causality? CYCLE-OF- VIOLENCE HYPOTHESIS argues that abused and neglected children suffer predisposes them to be abusive adults Tension Building Abusing Incident Making Up

58. Psychological Maltreatment Not all abuse is physical! Psychological maltreatment Occurs when parents or other caretakers harm children’s behavioral, cognitive, emotional, or physical functioning May take form of neglect in which parents may ignore or act emotionally unresponsive Not as easily identified without outward physical signs

59. What are consequences of psychological maltreatment? Some children survive and grow into psychologically healthy adults Others suffer long-term damage Low self-esteem, depression, suicide Lying Misbehavior Underachievement in school Criminal behavior

60. Abuse and Brain Development: A Tragic Relationship Brains of victims undergo permanent changes – Reductions in size of amygdala and hippocampus in adulthood – Changes due to overstimulation of the limbic system

61. Warning Signs for Child Abuse Feelings of pain for unexplained reasons Fear of adults or care providers Inappropriate attire in warm weather Extreme behavior Fear of physical contact Visible, serious injuries that have no reasonable explanation Bite or choke marks Burns from cigarettes or immersion in hot water

62. Difference is the key... Dramatic changes or shifts in behavior without logical explanation warrant inquiry

63. Three Cheers for the Survivors! A Closer Look at Resilient Children RESILIENCE Ability to overcome circumstances that place child at high risk for psychological and/or physical damage RESILIENT CHILDREN Exhibit ability to overcome circumstances that place child at high risk for psychological and/or physical functioning

64. Werner (1995) Resilient infants Temperaments that evoke responses from wide variety of caregivers Affectionate, easy going, good-natured Easily soothed as infants Able to evoke whatever support available in environment Resilient children Socially pleasant, outgoing, good communication skills Relatively intelligent, independent Realistic

65. Becoming an Informed Consumer of Development Disciplining Children For most children in Western cultures, authoritative parenting works best Spanking is never an appropriate discipline technique Tailor parental discipline to the characteristics of the child and the situation Use routines to avoid conflict

66. Review and Apply REVIEW In the preschool years, children develop their ____ true friendships on the basis of personal ____, ____, and shared ____. The character of preschoolers’ ____ changes over time, growing more ____, ____, and ____, and relying increasingly on social skills.

67. Review and Apply REVIEW There are several distinct childrearing styles, including ____, ____, ____, and ____. Childrearing styles show strong ____ influences. Some children suffer ____ from their own family members.

68. Review and Apply APPLY What cultural and environmental factors in the United States may have contributed to the shift from an authoritarian parenting style to an authoritative one since World War II? Is another shift under way? How might a nursery school teacher encourage a shy child to join a group of preschoolers who are playing?

69. MORAL DEVELOPMENT AND AGGRESSION

70. Moral Development Moral development = children’s reasoning about morality, their attitudes toward moral lapses, and their behavior when faced with moral issues. Several approaches have evolved

71. Moral Development… The case for right and wrong Changes in sense of justice and of right and wrong Changes in behavior related to moral issues

72. Theoretical Approaches Piaget HETERONOMOUS MORALITY 4 to 7 years Initial stage of moral development Rules seen as invariant, unchangeable, and beyond child’s control and/or influence Intentions not considered Believe in immanent justice (immediate punishment for infractions)

73. Theoretical Approaches Piaget INCIPIENT COOPERATION STAGE 7 to 10 years Become more social and learn the rules Play according to shared conception of the rules

74. Theoretical Approaches Piaget AUTONOMOUS COOPERATION STAGE Beginning at 10 years Become fully aware that rules may and can be modified if people playing agree

75. What do Piaget’s critics say? Accurate descriptions of how moral development proceeds Underestimates of age at which children’s moral skills develop

76. Social Learning Approaches to Morality Focus on how environment produces prosocial behavior Moral conduct learned through reinforcement and modeling

77. Do as I say…or as I do? Preschoolers more apt to model behavior of warm, responsive, competent, high prestige adults and peers

78. More than mimicking Children do more than simply mimic unthinkingly By observing moral conduct, children are reminded of: Society’s norms about importance of moral behavior as conveyed by significant others Connections between particular situations and certain kinds of behavior

79. Empathy and Moral Behavior Empathy lies at heart of some kinds of moral behavior Roots of empathy grow early Infants Toddlers Preschoolers

80. Emotional Self-Regulation Preschool children improve in emotional control Around age 2 Talk about feelings and engage in regulation strategies Preschoolers Develop more effective strategies and sophisticated social skills, learn to better cope with negative emotions Learn to use language to express wishes Become increasingly able to negotiate with others

81. Aggression Intentional injury or harm to another person; relatively stable trait Early preschool years aggression Often addressed at attaining desired goal Declines through preschool years as does frequency and average length of episodes Extreme and sustained aggression is cause of concern

82. Kinds of Aggression Instrumental aggression Motivated by desire to obtain a concrete goal Higher in boys than girls Relational aggression Intended to hurt another person’s feelings through non-physical means Higher in girls than boys

83. Explanations for Aggressive Behavior Among Children FREUD: death drive leads aggressive actions and behavior LORENZ: fighting instinct found in all humans SOCIOBIOLOGISTS: strengthening species drives aggression SOCIAL-LEARNING: prior learning shapes aggression COGNITIVE: interpretation of others’ actions and situations influences aggression

84. The One-Eyed Monster? Children’s programs contain more than twice as many violent incidents than other types of programs.

85. Effects of Video Game or Internet Playing on Children PositiveNegative

86. Becoming an Informed Consumer of Development Increasing Moral Behavior and Reducing Aggression Provide opportunities to observe others acting in a cooperative, helpful, prosocial manner Do not ignore aggressive behavior Help preschoolers devise alternative explanations for others’ behavior Monitor preschoolers’ television viewing, particularly the violence that they view

87. Review and Apply REVIEW Piaget believed that preschoolers are in the ____ morality stage of moral development, in which ____ are seen as invariant and unchangeable. ____ ____ approaches to moral development emphasize the importance of reinforcement for moral actions and the ____ of models of moral conduct. ____ and other theories focus on children’s empathy with others and their wish to help others so they can avoid unpleasant feelings of ____ themselves.

88. Review and Apply REVIEW Aggression typically declines in ____ and ____ as children become more able to ____ their emotions and to use language to ____ disputes. ____ and ____ regard aggression as an innate human characteristic, while proponents of social learning and cognitive approaches focus on ____ aspects of aggression.

89. Review and Apply APPLY If high-prestige models of behavior are particularly effective in influencing moral attitudes and actions, are there implications for individuals in such industries as sports, advertising, and entertainment? How might a preschool teacher or parent help children notice the violence in the programs they watch and protect them from its effects ?

90. EPILOGUE Before moving on to the next chapter, take a moment to reread the prologue to this chapter, about Usman Rabbani’s twin sons’ application to preschool, and answer the following questions: How might the process of applying to preschool itself influence the personality development of the two boys? If you were a parent of twins, would you want them to attend the same preschool? How might this shape their interactions and social development?

91. EPILOGUE Imagine you are running a preschool and only wanted to admit children who had reached a particular stage of moral development. How would you go about screening potential students? What sorts of behaviors would you look for? Usman Rabbani ended up describing one of his sons as a “jock.” Do you think he would have used this term in describing a daughter? Why or why not? What might the implications be of reserving particular words for children of one gender or the other?