1. FORMULATING RATIONS FOR DOMESTIC ANIMALS #8821-B

2. Introduction Livestock producers use guides to assist them in matching feeds with animals’ nutritional requirements and feed digestibility. Photo by Bill Tarpenning courtesy of USDA Photography Center.

3. Nutritionists have developed feeding standards, based on research, for determining daily nutritional requirements of livestock. Proper feeds can be formulated using those feeding standards.

4. A ration is simply a certain amount of feed provided to an animal. A balanced ration refers to a correct amount of feed that provides adequate nutrition to an animal during a 24-hour period. Photo by M. Jasek.

5. Rations for Different Purposes of Animals An animal’s nutritional requirements are based on its intended purpose, such as market, breeding, work, or production (milk, eggs, wool, etc.).

6. There are different types of rations based on the nutritional requirements that they meet for a given purpose, including: Maintenance, Growth, Finishing, Lactating/Laying, and Breeding/Gestating.

7. Maintenance Rations Maintenance rations are those that maintain the animal at its present weight and size. Maintenance rations provide enough nutrients to only satisfy the life-sustaining requirements.

8. Maintenance rations are usually high in carbohydrates and fats, but contain small amounts of protein, minerals, and vitamins.

9. Animals receiving maintenance rations include idle work animals, non-producing breeding animals, or animals retained at their present weight for other specific purposes. Photo by M. Jasek.

10. Growth Rations Growth rations are provided to animals to increase the size of muscle, bone, internal capacity, organs, and other body parts. Young market animals and developing breeding stock receive growth rations.

11. Rations formulated for growth are relatively high in protein, minerals, and vitamins. Photo by Bill Tarpenning courtesy of USDA Photography Center.

12. Finishing Rations Finishing rations are used to fatten (finish) feedlot animals. These animals are sent to slaughter after a few weeks in the feedlot.

13. Finishing rations contain large quantities of carbohydrates and fats, along with an ample supply of protein. Photo by M. Jasek.

14. Lactating/Laying Rations Lactating rations are fed to milk- producing animals, while laying rations are fed to egg-producing animals. These rations must meet requirements for body maintenance and production.

15. Because milk is high in protein, calcium, and phosphorus, lactating animals need to be fed rations high in these nutrients. Photo by Scott Bauer courtesy of USDA Agricultural Research Service.

16. Eggs are rich in protein, minerals, and vitamins; therefore, layers should be fed rations high in these nutrients. Photo by Ken Hammond courtesy of USDA Agricultural Research Service.

17. Breeding and Gestating Rations Rations provided to animals that are breeding or gestating should provide adequate levels of nutrients. Producers should provide a liberal supply of protein, minerals, and vitamins to breeding and gestating animals.

18. If breeding animals are provided with inadequate nutrition, fertility is lowered, temporary sterility develops, and reproduction is irregular. Photo by Bob Bjork courtesy of USDA Agricultural Research Service.

19. If gestating animals are provided with inadequate nutrition, they could have a reduced number of offspring and the offspring may be small and weak. Photo by M. Jasek.

20. Eight Essentials of a Good Ration There are eight factors that are essential for a good ration. Balanced Ration – increased weight gain and greater profits are realized with a balanced ration;

21. Diversified in Feedstuff – different feed ingredients allow for ration balancing; Succulent – livestock consume more feed, if it is fresh and appealing; Palatable – livestock consume more feed, if it tastes good;

22. Bulky – livestock desire feeds with bulk (such as ground oats, wheat bran, and beet pulp). Slightly Laxative – a laxative feed usually improves animal efficiency; Economical – A low-cost, high- quality ration keeps the producer in business; and

23. Suitable for the Animal – ruminants need roughages, while non-ruminants rely on concentrates.

24. “Rules of Thumb” for Feeding Livestock Although individual animals vary, there are some basic guidelines that a producer can follow when determining feed requirements for livestock.

25. Beef Cattle The quality and kind of roughage, purpose of animal, and animal species affect the exact amount of roughage fed to beef cattle. Typically, beef cattle consume 1.5 to 2 pounds of air-dry roughage for each 100 pounds of body weight.

26. Finishing cattle rations normally contain less than two pounds of roughage per 100 pounds of body weight. When silage replaces dry roughage, it is fed at a rate of three pounds per 100 pounds of body weight.

27. Concentrates are fed to finishing cattle at the rate of approximately two pounds for each 100 pounds of body weight. Photo by M. Jasek.

28. Dairy Cattle Dairy cattle require a good-quality roughage at a rate of 2.5 pounds per 100 pounds of body weight. The quality of roughage affects the protein requirements for the concentrate.

29. The quantities of concentrates fed to dairy cattle depend on the quantity of roughage, amount of milk production, and length of time before freshening.

30. One pound of concentrates is recommended for each three pounds of milk production by Jerseys and Guernseys. Photo by Bill Tarpenning courtesy of USDA Photography Center.Photo by Ken Hammond courtesy of USDA Photography Center.

31. Holstein, Ayrshire, and Brown Swiss are fed one pound of concentrate for every four pounds of milk. Photo by Ken Hammond courtesy of USDA Photography Center. Photo by Bill Tarpenning courtesy of USDA Photography Center.

32. Sheep Finishing lambs and muttons are fed roughages and concentrates at the same rate recommended for finishing beef cattle, two pounds of concentrate and two pounds of roughage per 100 pounds of body weight.

33. Breeding sheep on a maintenance ration are fed three pounds of air-dry roughage per 100 pounds of body weight. The roughage is supplemented with protein and minerals.

34. Hogs Rations provided in self-feeders to breed sows and gilts contain 12% to 15% roughage.

35. For weight gain, the amount of roughage is reduced and the amount of concentrates is increased. If bred sows gain too much weight, the roughage is increased.

36. Older sows nursing litters are fed 2 to 2.5 pounds of concentrates per 100 pounds of body weight. Photo courtesy of USDA Agricultural Resource Service.

37. Finishing pigs consume from 3.5 to 5 pounds of concentrates per 100 pounds of body weight. Photo by Tim McCabe courtesy of USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service.

38. Rations for growing and finishing pigs contain protein, minerals, and vitamins. Ten essential amino acids must be supplied in feed. Minerals are mixed with the ration or fed free-choice.

39. Poultry Nutritional requirements for poultry are approximately the same as those for other domesticated animals. However, poultry are unable to digest large amounts of roughage.

40. Laying hens need rations meeting the requirements for both body maintenance and production.

41. Horses The size of the horse, the amount and kind of work it is performing, and its age determine the amount of grain and roughage fed to the horse.

42. Because a horse has a smaller digestive tract as compared to a cow, rations for horses with high energy requirements must contain concentrates.

43. For every 100 pounds of body weight, the amount fed to a horse varies from ½ to 1.33 pounds of grain and 1.5 to 1.25 pounds of roughage, respectively. As you can see, an increase in concentrates reflects a decrease in roughages.

44. Determining Values of Feed Three methods for determining values of feed based on price are discussed in this presentation: Comparing cost per pound of TDN; Comparing cost per pound of protein; and Tabular Method.

45. In addition to price, other factors that influence the values of concentrates include: Grade of grain; Species of animal receiving the grain; Age of animal receiving the grain; Feed preparation method;

46. Moisture content of grain; and Fertility of the soil on which the grain is grown.

47. Comparing the Cost Per Pound of TDN Total digestible nutrients (TDN) is the sum of all digestible nutrients including protein, fiber, nitrogen-free extract, and fat.

48. Steps to compare cost per pound of TDN: 1. Determine the amount of TDN in each feed being compared; 2. Divide the cost of the feed by the amount of TDN of each feed to determine the cost per pound of TDN. 3. Compare the cost per pound of TDN for each feed.

49. Example: A Comparison of the Values of Corn and Oats Based on TDN Content. GrainCost per cwt. (100 lbs.) TDN Content Shelled Corn$7.80/cwt.87% Whole Oats$12.80/cwt.77%

50. Cost per pound of TDN in shelled corn: $7.80 / 87 = $0.0897 Cost per pound of TDN in whole oats: $12.80 / 77 = $0.1662

51. Shelled corn ($0.0897) is almost twice as economical as whole oats ($0.1662) based on cost per pound of TDN (TDN contents are based on values for ruminants).

52. Comparing the Cost Per Pound of Protein The cost per pound of protein is determined in a manner similar to determining the cost per pound of TDN; it is computed by taking the protein content and dividing it by the cost of the feed.

53. Example: A Comparison of the Values of Corn and Oats Based on Protein Content. GrainCost per cwt. (100 lbs.) Protein Content Shelled Corn$7.80/cwt.9% Whole Oats$12.80/cwt.13.5%

54. Cost per pound of protein in shelled corn: $7.80 / 9 = $0.8667 Cost per pound of protein in whole oats: $12.80 / 13.5 = $0.9481

55. Shelled corn ($0.8667) is only 10% more economical than whole oats ($0.9481) based on cost per pound of protein (Protein contents are based on values for ruminants).

56. Tabular Method Some feed manufacturing firms and governmental agencies develop feed comparison charts in tabular form. These charts show equivalent prices for various feedstuffs (corn, milo, oats, silage, hay, etc.).

57. For example, the USDA Economic Research Service provided the following data for the year 2006. Note that these are farm prices for the commodities, not market prices for feedstuffs. CommodityUnitAmount Barley$ per bushel3.05 Corn$ per bushel3.40 Oats$ per bushel1.95 Sorghum$ per bushel3.40 Farm Price (Projected High Value Range), USA, 2006 Market Year Retrieved February 12, 2006 at http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/FeedGrains/FeedGrainsQueriable.aspx.http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/FeedGrains/FeedGrainsQueriable.aspx

58. If a feedlot operator can pay $7.36 per cwt for milo, when corn costs $7.80, and receive the same value based on TDN, then milo would be the most economical purchase.

59. Feed Preparation Feed preparation refers to the processing that takes place when feed is produced.

60. Feed preparation does not necessarily increase the feed’s value, but it does increase consumption, improve digestion, eliminate waste, increase palatability, and make the feed easier to handle. Conversely, improper feed preparation can decrease the value of a feed.

61. The method of feed preparation used depends on preparation costs, the feed’s composition, and the species and age of the animal receiving the feed. Common methods of preparation include: grinding, cubing/pelleting, and steam flaking.

62. Grinding Grinding grain is profitable only if it increases consumption and digestion or if the grain has a hard seedcoat causing difficulty in chewing.

63. Coarse ground grain feels gritty or mealy. Finely ground grain feels floury and is difficult for animals to digest; it also costs more because of additional grinding requirements.

64. Grinding of roughages is recommended only if it increases consumption, eliminates waste, or the roughage is to be mixed with concentrates.

65. Cubing/Pelleting Cubing or pelleting feeds increases consumption, eliminates waste, handles easier, and does not require special feeding equipment.

66. Most feed mixtures can be made into cubes or pellets.

67. Steam Flaking Steam flaking requires grain to be steamed and then run through rollers with approximately 1/16-inch opening.

68. Research indicates that steam flaking of milo and corn increases digestibility. Steam flaking other grains offers few benefits.

69. Nutritive Requirements of Livestock Feeding standards have been developed as guidelines for determining nutritive requirements of animals.

70. Differences occur in feeding values of any two lots of the same kind of feeds and the animals’ abilities to digest and utilize feeds will vary. Remember, a ration may meet the nutritive requirements listed in the standards, but it may not be a good ration.

71. To identify nutritive requirements of an animal: 1. Determine the approximate weight of the animal (or the average weight of a group of animals); 2. Determine the class of the animal; and 3. Refer to a nutritional guide, such as Morrison’s Feeds and Feeding to find the nutritive requirements.

72. Examples of classes for beef cattle include beef cows, nursing calves, wintering pregnant beef cows, growing beef cattle, and finishing cattle. Morrison’s Feeds and Feeding, is a recognized reference for identifying nutritive requirements.

73. Example: Nutritive Requirements for a 600-Pound Finishing Beef Calf. Nutritive Requirements:Pounds: Dry Matter (DM)13.2 – 15.8 Digestible Protein (DP)1.26 – 1.37 TDN10.2 – 11.8 Based on the requirements, a 600-pound finishing beef calf has a digestive tract large enough to consume from 13.2 to 15.8 pounds of DM daily. This amount of feed furnishes 1.26 to 1.37 pounds of DP and 10.2 to 11.8 pounds TDN required by the beef calf.

74. A range is provided in the standards to allow for economic conditions. These will determine whether the feeder will use the lower or higher figures in the standards. The higher figure usually is recommended. A ration composed of desirable feeds and meeting the standards is adequate for the animals.

75. Computing Rations When computing rations, keep in mind the approximate amounts of concentrates and roughages required by various animals and the “rules of thumb” for feed requirements previously discussed.

76. Two methods of computing rations will be discussed: Using recommendations in the feeding standards; and Using the Pearson’s Square.

77. Computing Rations Using the Feeding Standards’ Recommendations Beef Cattle: Using the recommendations for the example of the 600-pound finishing calf, we know that the animal can consume 13 to 16 pounds of feed per day and, according to the “rule of thumb,” beef animals are fed approximately two pounds of feed for each 100 pounds of body weight.

78. The second step is to determine the kinds and amounts of feed to use. Milo is chosen as the principle grain in this example because it is extensively grown and possibly the most economical grain available.

79. Other feed ingredients are also chosen. The composition of various feeds is in Morrison’s Feeds and Feeding.

80. A ration composed of 9 lbs. of milo, 5 lbs. of cottonseed hulls (CSH), and 2 lbs. of 41% protein cottonseed meal (CSM) is used in the example. After selecting the feeds and obtaining their 1-pound compositions from the standards, the next step is to multiply the number of pounds of each feed by its 1-pound composition.

81. The result is the total nutrients supplied by each quantity of feed. FeedDMDPTDN 1 lb. Milo 0.89 x 9 lbs. 8.01 0.085 x 9 lbs. 0.765 0.794 x 9 lbs. 7.146 1 lb. CSH 0.908 x 5 lbs. 4.540 0.00 x 5 lbs. 0 0.437 x 5 lbs. 2.185 1 lb. CSM 0.922 x 2 lbs. 1.844 0.328 x 2 lbs. 0.656 0.691 x 2 lbs. 1.382

82. After the total nutrients supplied by each feed are determined, the nutrients are added. SAMPLE RATION DMDPTDN 9 lbs. Milo8.010.777.15 5 lbs. CSH4.540.002.19 2 lbs. CSM1.840.661.38 Totals:14.391.4310.72

83. Then, the sample ration is compared to the requirements of the 600-pound beef calf. DMDPTDN Requirements for 13.2-15.8 1.26-1.37 10.2-11.8 600-lb. Beef Calf Totals for Sample 14.39 1.43 10.72 Ration The ration meets the feeding standard nutritive requirements of the 600-lb. beef calf and DP is not too excessive.

84. When computing a ration, it is often necessary to adjust the amounts of feeds to meet the nutritive requirements of the animal(s).

85. A common problem is the selection of feeds low in protein and/or TDN. If the ration is low in TDN, a concentrate high in TDN is substituted for all or part of the feeds low in TDN.

86. The cost of each ingredient in the ration is also considered when adjusting the ration to meet the nutritive requirements.

87. The ration is computed for the average animal in a group or herd, not for each animal. Animals not receiving their feed free-choice can have concentrates and roughages adjusted to meet their needs.

88. All animals in a feedlot generally are fed the same ration. The larger animals consume more feed than the smaller ones, but each animal receives its requirements. Photo by M. Jasek.

89. Lactating Dairy Cow: Rations for lactating dairy cows are computed in a similar manner as for beef cattle. However, the nutritive requirements depend on the number of pounds of milk produced daily and the butterfat content (BF) of the milk.

90. The nutritive requirements of lactating dairy cattle are determined by adding the requirements for both maintenance and production (pounds of milk and BF content). Also, cows in the last two or three months of pregnancy are to receive an additional allowance.

91. The following example is for a 1,100-pound cow in the last three months of pregnancy and producing 40 lbs. of 4% BF milk. The nutritive requirements are found in Morrison’s Feeds and Feeding. The requirements for one pound of milk are multiplied by 40 (the pounds produced daily by cow in example).

92. DM for lactating dairy cows is not provided in the standards because digestive systems of dairy cows have tremendous feed capacities. Photo by Keith Weller courtesy of USDA Agricultural Research Service.

93. DPTDN Requirements for Maintenance (A) 0.65 - 0.717.6 - 8.6 Requirements for 1 lb. of 4% BF Milk Total Pounds of Milk Total Requirements for 40 lbs. Milk (B) 0.041 - 0.049 x 40 x 40 1.640 1.960 0.31 - 0.32 x 40 x 40 12.40 12.80 Requirements for Pregnancy (C) 0.65 - 0.70 6.5 - 7.0 Grand Total Requirements (A+B+C) 2.94 - 3.3726.5 - 28.4 Nutritive Requirements for a 1,100-lb Dairy Cow

94. After the total requirements are determined, the ration for the lactating dairy cow is computed in a similar manner as was computed previously for the 600-lb finishing beef calf. Most dairy cows are dried-off approximately 60 days before calving. The additional requirements for pregnancy are met by feeding more of the ration computed for cows not in their last three months of pregnancy.

95. Computing Rations by the Pearson’s Square A simplified method of computing rations is by the Pearson’s Square. Either the crude protein or DP requirements of the animal can be used to compute the ration.

96. Approximately 80% of the crude protein content is digestible. Therefore, an animal requiring 16% crude protein would require a ration containing 13% DP. An explanation of the steps involved in using the Pearson Square method follow.

97. Steps Used in the Pearson Square Method Step 1. A square is drawn. Step 2. In the center of the square, enter the percentage of protein desired in the mixture.

98. Step 3: To the left of the upper left- hand corner of the square, the grain and its protein content are listed. Step 4: To the left of the lower left- hand corner of the square, the higher protein feed and its protein content are listed.

99. Step 5: The smaller number along a diagonal of the box is subtracted from the larger number along the same diagonal of the box, and the calculated difference is listed at the far right. The differences are the parts of feedstuff to use in the mixture.

100. Step 6: The percentage of each feed to use in the mixture is determined. The following example will illustrate the steps used in the Pearson Square method to determine the number of pounds of milo (8.5% DP) and the number of pounds of 41% crude protein CSM (32.8% DP) needed to formulate a 13% DP mixture.

101. Step 1: Step 2: 13

102. Step 3: Step 4: 13 Milo 8.5 CSM 32.8

103. Step 5: Milo 8.5 CSM 32.8 13 4.5 Parts CSM 19.8 Parts Milo Step 6: Milo: 19.8 / 24.3 = 81 % CSM: 4.5 / 24.3 = 19% Total Parts in Mixture: 24.3

104. To produce 100 pounds of 13% DP ration using milo and CSM, 81 pounds of milo is mixed with 19 pounds of cottonseed meal.

105. A producer can use the feeding standards and the Pearson Square to compute a ration. For example, let’s assume that a ration is needed for a 600-lb. yearling wintering beef heifer with an expected daily gain of ½ to ¾ pound. The producer has roughage and concentrate and plans to feed 1 lb. of sudan hay for each 100 lbs. of body weight.

106. The producer could use the feeding standards and Pearson Square to determine the appropriate feed ration for the 600-lb. wintering beef heifer. Step 1: Determine the nutritive requirements from the feeding standards. DMDPTDN 600-lb. wintering heifer 11.6 – 13.30.67 – 0.756.3 – 7.2

107. Step 2: The amounts of DP and TDN supplied by the roughage are determined and subtracted from the total requirements. The remainder of deficient nutrients (DP and TDN) are supplied by concentrates. DMDPTDN Contents of 1-lb. of hay DP and TDN supplied 0.894 x 6 xxx 0.043 x 6 0.258 0.486 x 6 2.916 DP and TDN to be supplied by concentrates (to compensate for deficit in the hay) 0.75 -0.26 0.49 7.2 -2.9 4.3

108. Step 3: The pounds of deficit TDN (4.3) are divided by the approximate percentage of TDN (80%) in the concentrate mixture to be used and multiplied by 100. The result is the pounds of concentrate required. 4.3 / 80 = 0.054 x 100 = 5.4

109. Step 4: The deficit pounds of DP are divided by the pounds of concentrates to be fed and multiplied by 100 to determine the percentage of DP needed in the concentrate. (0.49 / 5.4) x 100 = 9%

110. Step 5: The proportion of protein supplement and grain, or grain mixture, needed to provide the desired percentage of DP in the concentrate mixture is determined by using the Pearson’s Square. The ration needs to also provide minerals. We use the feed ingredients from the previous example; milo (8.5% DP) and CSM (32.8% DP) will be used to mix 200 lbs. of a 9% DP ration.

111. 9 Milo 8.5 CSM 32.8 23.8 parts Milo.5 parts CSM Total Parts in Mixture = 24.3 Milo: 23.8 / 24.3 = 98 % CSM:.5 / 24.3 = 2%

112. To produce 200 pounds of 9% DP ration using milo and CSM, 196 pounds of milo is mixed with 4 pounds of cottonseed meal.

113. Summary A feed’s nutritive value and its digestibility vary among animals within the different livestock species. Producers can use research-based feeding standards to determine daily nutritive requirements and formulate proper feeds that meet those feeding standards.