1. Issues and debates

2. Determinism versus free will Determinism: Is our behaviour controlled by one factor? (hard determinism) Or is it controlled by general laws, allowing free will to operate in some situations? (soft determinism) If our behaviour was entirely based on free will then no laws or predictions could be made about our behaviour. If our behaviour is determined by factors outside our controlled then we cannot be held responsible for our actions and this would have very serious consequences for society.

3. All approaches vary in their degree of determinism Biological approach argues that our behaviour is mainly determined by our genetic make-up Cognitive approach? Behaviourist approach? Psychodynamic approach? Social approach?

4. Reductionism versus holism An approach that tries to explain a complex phenomenon such as human behaviour in terms of basic elements. i.e. can explain behaviour & experiences in reference to one factor e.g. physiology. Behaviourist approach? Psychodynamic approach? Social approach? Cognitive approach? Holism: Looks at individuals as a whole, or perhaps looks at a all factors which together might explain a behaviour.

5. Advantages of Reductionism  Helps understand the world better  Has led to some great discoveries  Easier to study one component rather than several Disadvantages of Reductionism  Makes complex behaviour very simplistic  Component isolated doesn’t give full explanation of behaviour

6. Nature versus Nurture Nature This suggests that behaviour is innate (nativism) and a result of genetics. They are universal (nomothetic) and pre determined (deterministic). All development is pre- wired from birth (Gesell ) People’s behaviour/personality is relatively fixed (pre-determined by a genetic blueprint) Nurture All behaviour is learnt from the environment. We are shaped by our environment All behaviour is a result of learning therefore undesirable behaviour can be un- learned

7. Behaviourist approach? Psychodynamic approach? Social approach? Cognitive approach? Biological approach? Nature Nurture No approach is entirely nature or nurture, place each approach on the continuum.

8. Gender bias Taking male thinking/behaviour as normal, regarding female thinking/behaviour as deviant, inferior, abnormal, ‘other’ when it is different Alpha bias Exaggerating the differences between men & women Beta bias Exaggerating the similarity between men & women Often happens when findings obtained from men and applied to women without additional validation Freud & psychosexual development ‘Biology is destiny’ – women’s roles are prescribed & predetermined ‘Penis envy’ – women are defined psychologically by the fact that they aren’t men

9. Cultural bias The Psychology presented in your books is predominantly a white, Euro-American enterprise 64% of psychological researchers from US >90% of studies have US Participants The samples predominantly white middle class. Yet it aims at explaining human behaviour!!! Emics and etics Emics are the constructs particular to a specific culture Etics are constructs that are universal to all people Bias can occur when emics and etics get mistaken for each other

10. Emic constructs are specific to particular cultures, so they vary from place to place Likely to be ignored or misinterpreted Researchers from one culture may not be sensitive to local emics Their own cultural ‘filters’ may prevent them from detecting them or appreciating their significance Etic constructs are assumed to be universal, but may not be This can lead to ‘imposed etics’, where a construct from one culture is applied inappropriately to another Can you think of an example you have seen in the AS course? Hint????

11. Ethnocentrism n This occurs when a researcher assumes that their own culturally specific practices or ideas are ‘natural’ or ‘right’ –When other cultures are observed to differ from the researcher’s own, they may be regarded in a negative light –E.g. ‘primitive’, ‘degenerate’, ‘unsophisticated’, ‘undeveloped’ etc. n Becomes racism when other cultures are denigrated or their traditions regarded as irrelevant etc.

12. Ethics

13. Not everyone is capable of giving informed consent We need to take special care when studying vulnerable people who may not understand the implications of taking part in a study

14. Parents or carers must be given enough information about the study to allow them to make an informed judgement on the child’s behalf Dealing with consent for children below the age of 16

15. When vulnerable people do not have relatives or carers to give informed consent on their behalf, researchers have to seek consent from an ethics committee The study might find the cause of his anger… …But this is an invasive procedure

16. Ethics: cost-benefit analysis Cost to the participants Benefits to society

17. Non-human animal studies Animals can be used in ways humans can’t  Short lifespans & breeding cycles enable inheritance to be studied  Behaviour can be controlled and monitored in ways impossible with people  Less reactivity Why use animals? We share common ancestry with other animals (Darwin, 1859)  Basic similarities in physiological structure & functioning  Behavioural similarities with some species (e.g. primates)  Animal research therefore gives valid information about human processes

18. Ethical arguments n Utilitarian –The suffering of a small number of animals is justified because it helps a large number of people n Moral duty –We have a moral obligation to our own species to advance knowledge and reduce suffering. Animal research is justified if it furthers this (Gray, 1991)

19. Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986  If animals are to be constrained, harmed or stressed in any way, investigators must consider whether the knowledge to be gained justifies the procedure. Alternatives to animal experiments should  be considered wherever possible.  Limit the number of animals used to the minimum  Do not use endangered species  Caging conditions should take into account the social behaviour of the species.