1. Alternative Approaches to the Role of Previously Known Languages Avoidance: when speaking or writing a second/foreign language, a speaker will often try to avoid using a difficult word or structure, and will use a simpler word or structure instead. This is called an avoidance strategy. For example, a student who is not sure of the use of the relative clause in English may avoid using it and use two simpler sentences instead: That’s my building. I live there. instead of That’s the building where I live.

2. Alternative Approaches to the Role of Previously Known Languages Avoidance: Two factors may cause avoidance: 1.L1-L2 differences 2.Complex structures in the target language. Question: Are there certain structures that you avoid when using your L2? What are they? Do they exist in your L1? Is the avoidance due to difference between your L1 and your L2, or rather to the complexity of the l2 structure?

3. Alternative Approaches to the Role of Previously Known Languages Differential Learning Rates: Ard and Homburg argue that language transfer facilitates learning (see examples on page 142). For instance as Spanish and English display more similarities than Arabic and English, Spanish learners of English display accelerated learning rates.

4. Alternative Approaches to the Role of Previously Known Languages Different Paths: In many instances paths of acquisition are not identical for speakers of all languages. This is due to differences or similarities between languages. Facts of the native languages lead learners down different paths. Transfer to somewhere principle: A principle developed to account for when transfer is likely to occur. It claims that transfer will occur only in those instances when the second language input allows the learner to see potential for transfer.

5. Alternative Approaches to the Role of Previously Overproduction: learner produces a given L2 structure with much greater frequency than natives of L2 do. Some structures that are not so frequent in the target language are used more regularly by the learner because he/she feels more confident using them and therefore, overproduction will arise.

6. Alternative Approaches to the Role of Previously Predictability/Selectivity: When something in L2 is very different from the L1, there is a novelty effect and the information ‘sticks’ more rapidly.

7. Alternative Approaches to the Role of Previously Morpheme Order Studies: An approach to SLA introduced by Dulay and Burt ( 1974 ) that focuses on the sequence in which specific English grammatical morphemes are acquired. Claims are made for a natural order.

8. Alternative Approaches to the Role of Previously Morpheme Order Studies: This is interesting because if we find that the same elements of an L2 are learned first no matter what the learner’s L1 is, we might assume that transfer from L1 is less important than if we were to find that the order of acquisition is different for speakers of different native languages. If the same order of acquisition is found in L2 as in children’s L1 learning, there is the additional implication that the acquisition processes may be very much the same for all of language development.

9. Alternative Approaches to the Role of Previously Morpheme Order Studies L1L2 1 Progressive -ing He is talking. 3 2 Plural -s There are two cats. 4 3 Past irregular We ate. 7 4 Possessive -s The child’s toy 8 5 Articles a/the A sunny day/The cat 1 6 Past regular -ed They talked. 6 7 Third person -s He sings. 9 8 Copula be He’s tall. 2 9 Auxiliary be She’s singing. 5

10. Alternative Approaches to the Role of Previously Morpheme Order Studies Morpheme order studies argue that L2 learners are neither merely imitating what they hear nor necessarily transferring L1 structures to the new code, but (subconsciously) creating a mental grammar which allows them to interpret and produce utterances they have not heard before.

11. Alternative Approaches to the Role of Previously Criticisms on morpheme order studies: More recent research into the morpheme order studies has shown that not all learners follow the order, as previousy thought. The L1 of the learner appears to make a difference in the order of morpheme acquisition that the learners follow.