2. Solve this maze at your leisure. Start at phil’s house. At first, you can only make right turns through the maze. Each time you cross the red zigzag sign (under Carl’s auto repair), the direction in which you turn changes. So, after the first time you cross that sign, you can then only make left turns; after the second time, you switch back to right turns only, etc. How can Carl’s auto repair be reached?

3. Video (~3 min): Short-term memory in Chimpanzees: talent or practice? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zJAH4ZJBiN8

4. Language Part I Speech Perception Semantics

5. Levels of Language Phonology The sound system of a language (phonemes) Morphology & Semantics How a language expresses meaning (morphemes, words) Syntax The structure of a language. Rules for combining words Pragmatics How language is used How melody used to create meaning Prosody

6. Phonology The study of the sound patterns of language Phoneme: The smallest unit of sound that can be altered to change the meaning of a word In English, the words gin, kin, pin, tin, win all have different meaning due to the fact that the initial sound, or phoneme, is different

7. Speech Perception The first step in comprehending spoken language is to identify the words being spoken, performed in multiple stages: 1. Phonemes are detected (/b/, /e/, /t/, /e/, /r/, ) 2. Phonemes are combined into syllables (/be/ /ter/) 3. Syllables are combined into words (“better”) 4. Word meaning retrieved from memory

8. Spectrogram: I owe you a yo-yo

9. How many words were spoken (in Finnish)? 1) 2) 3) “Hyvää huomenta” (two words)  “Good morning” “ Kiitoksia oikein paljon” (three words)  “Thank you” “Ilmatyynyalukseni on täynnä ankeriaita” (four words)  “My hovercraft is full of Eels”

10. Speech perception: two problems Words are not neatly segmented (e.g., by pauses) Difficult to identify phonemes –Coarticulation = consecutive speech sounds blend into each other due to mechanical constraints on articulators –Speaker differences; pitch affected by age and sex; different dialects, talking speeds etc.

12. How do listeners deal with variability in acoustic input? Use of visual cues: McGurk effect Use of semantic cues: Phonemic restoration Continuous changes in input are mapped on to discrete percepts: Categorical perception

13. Phonemic restoration Auditory presentation Perception Legislature legislature Legi*lature legislature Legi_laturelegi lature It was found that the *eel was on the axle. It was found that the *eel was on the shoe. It was found that the *eel was on the orange. It was found that the *eel was on the table. Warren, R. M. (1970). Perceptual restorations of missing speech sounds. Science, 167, 392-393. wheel heel peel meal

14. Video (5 secs): McGurk Effect Perception of auditory event affected by visual processing Harry McGurk and John MacDonald in "Hearing lips and seeing voices", Nature 264, 746-748 (1976). YOUTUBE: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aFPtc8BVdJk http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ypd5txtGdGw

15. McGurk Effect McGurk effect in video: –lip movements = “ga” –speech sound = “ba” –speech perception = “da” (for 98% of adults) Demonstrates parallel & interactive processing: speech perception is based on multiple sources of information, e.g. lip movements, auditory information. Brain makes reasonable assumption that both sources are informative and “fuses” the information.

16. Video (11 secs): another example of the McGurk Effect Harry McGurk and John MacDonald in "Hearing lips and seeing voices", Nature 264, 746-748 (1976).

17. Categorical Perception Categorical perception: high level cognitive processes (i.e., categorization) can influence perceptual processes Conceptual Knowledge Perception of Sounds/Images categorical perception

18. Differences among items that fall into different categories are exaggerated, and differences among items that fall into the same category are minimized. (from Rob Goldstone, Indiana University)

19. Examples from “LAKE” to “RAKE” from /da/ to /ga/ Good /ga/Good /da/ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 http://www.psych.ufl.edu/~white/Cate_per.htm

20. Identification: Discontinuity at Boundary % of /ga/ response 100% 0% 50% Token 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

21. Pairwise discrimination Good /ga/Good /da/ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Difficult to discriminate these pairs Easier to discriminate these pairs (straddle the category boundary) Difficult to discriminate these pairs

22. What Happened? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Physical World Perceptual Representation

23. Categorical Perception depends on language In one language a difference in sound may make a difference – leads to perception of different phonemes; in another, it might not Example: several Asian languages do not distinguish between /l/ and /r/ Different languages have different sets of phonemes http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wgrrQwLdME8 Listen to the wonderful singing of this child that has difficulty distinguishing l/r sound:

24. Dental Stop Retroflex Stop Hindi Examples of different phonemes non-existent in English Uvular Velar Salish (Native North American—Canadian—language)

25. Infant Speech Perception Infants (not adults) can perceive most and perhaps all phonemes found in human language Ability is quickly lost because some sounds not needed

26. Diminished Sensitivity to Foreign Language Contrasts

27. Semantics

28. The meaning or interpretation of a word, phrase, or sentence Two main theories about how we abstract meaning

29. Definitional Theory of Word Meaning The full meaning of each word is captured by a set of features that are essential for membership in the class named by the word

30. Example of using definitional theory bachelor: [single] [human] [adult] [male]

31. Problem with Definitional Theory A thing either fits or doesn’t fit definition Doesn’t capture the fact that some members of category are better exemplars than others bachelor? Alfred is an unmarried adult male. He has been living with his girlfriend for the last twenty-three years. Their relationship is happy and stable. Is Alfred a bachelor?

32. Prototype Theory of Word Meaning family resemblance structure The member of a set or category that captures the greatest number of category features

33. prototype

34. Mental prototype for chair 33

35. Advantages of prototype theory People are quicker at classifying typical than atypical members Is this a “cat”? Is this a “dog”?