1. Chapter 8 Language and Cognition

2. Language Language consists of: 1. symbols that convey meaning 2. Rules for combining those symbols so that they can generate messages. Language is Symbolic, Generative, and Structured. Symbolic is easy to understand but what is generative?

3. Behaviorist Theory of Language Skinner – Children Learn Through Conditioning and Imitation. (Nurture.)

4. Interactionist Theory of Language Biology and Experience both Influence the Formation of Experience. (Nature & Nurture.) Linguistic Relativity – Benjamin Lee Whorf – Culture and Language Determines the nature of one’s thought. Language can determine how you think.

5. Nativist Theory of Language Noam Chomsky – Children Learn the Rules of Language, not Specific Responses. (Nature.) Language Acquisition Device (LAD) – An Innate Mechanism or Process that Facilitates the Learning of Language. Children are Biologically Equipped to Learn Language.

6. Generative Theory During the first half of the 20th century, linguists who theorized about the human ability to speak did so from the behaviorist perspective. Language learning, like any other kind of learning, could be explained by a succession of trials, errors, and rewards for success. Children learned their mother tongue by simple imitation, listening to and repeating what adults said.

7. The Structure of Language Language has a Hierarchal Structure. *Phonemes are the smallest speech units in a language that can be distinguished perceptually. *About 100 different phonemes/sounds. These are sounds. *Morphemes – Smallest units of meaning in a language. These are words. *Root Words, Pre-Fixes, and Suffixes

8. Semantics Semantics – Concerned with understanding the meaning of words and word combinations. This is mystical “meaning”. Syntax – System of rules that specify how words can be arranged into sentences. Sentence must have both noun phrase and verb phrase.

9. Language Development 1-3 Months Old = Learning Phonemes/Sounds. 4-8 Months Old = Learning Morphemes/Words. 8 Months Old = Learning Semantics/Meanings. 2 Years Old Begin Combining Words and Forming Sentences. Mean Length of Utterance (MLU) – average length of child’s speech - Measured in Morphemes/Words.

10. Fast Mapping Fast Mapping is the way children learn what a particular word means. When they hear a word for the first time, kids can often figure out what it means This instinctive method uses information the child already knows to place the word in the right context. The kid narrows down the meaning by excluding possibilities that already have words attached to them and apply the unknown word to the object or action that does not already have a name. For instance, the concept of a black cat is understood by children who identify the word cat as a particular sort of animal and also as a particular inanimate representation of that animal in a book or as a toy. The concept of black enters their minds as a color that can apply to many objects because they hear it used in this context.

11. Overextension/Underextension Overextension is when a child uses a word too broadly. Like if they called ALL males 'daddy' or all animals 'dog'...It's not because the child doesn't detect differences, though, it's because they don't have other words to use yet. Underextension is the opposite. For example, a child may only call black labs 'dog' but no other dogs. Or calling their rattle a rattle, but calling other ones 'toys'.

12. Telegraphic Speech Approximately age 2, children enter the Two-Word stage of language development and they exhibit telegraphic speech This is speech that sounds very much like a telegram, has words arranged in an order that makes sense, and contains almost all nouns and verbs. For example, a child at this stage of development who wants to get milk may say "get milk", as opposed to saying just "milk". There are only two words, they are in an order that makes sense, there is one verb and one noun, and it sounds like a telegram.

13. Metalinguistic Awareness Metalinguistics can be classified as the ability to consciously reflect on the nature of language Metalinguistic awareness is also known as metacognition ("knowing about knowing") Children begin to recognize that statements may have a literal meaning and an implied meaning. They begin to make more frequent and sophisticated use of metaphors such as the simile, "We packed the room like sardines". Between the ages of 6 and 8 most children begin to expand upon their metalinguistic awareness and start to recognize irony and sarcasm. These concepts require the child to understand the subtleties of an utterance's social and cultural context.

14. They also create Knock Knock jokes Knock Knock. Who's there? Cargo. Cargo who? Cargo BEEP BEEP!

15. Can Animals Develop Language? Chimpanzees can Communicate with Humans through Language Boards if Trained. Kanzi is a Chimpanzee that can Communicate through a Sound Board. This raises idea that animals not only Communicate, but have Language.

16. Cognition

17. Cognition Mental Processes Problem solving reasoning Decision making. This is based in 19th century fascination with ideas. The early psychologists saw themselves as extensions of philosophy and science This is the reason introspection was first used. The problem here is “thinking about thinking” This thinking is also reaffirmation of idea of mind/body duality Behaviorism gets rid of duality. The mind essentially doesn’t exist because psychology is now a science only and can only deal with what is observable.

18. Cognitive Revolution “cognitive revolution” in 1950’s Newell and Simon (first computer program) Noam Chomsky and language George Miller and short term memory.

19. Problem Solving - Active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable. 3 Types of Problems: 1.Inducing Structure - require people to discover the relationships among numbers, words, symbols, or ideas. 1.Problems of arrangement - require people to arrange the parts of a problem in a way that satisfies some criterion. The parts can usually be arranged in many ways, but only one or a few of the arrangements form a solution. The string problem and the anagrams fit in this category. Arrangement problems are often solved with a burst of insight 2.Problems of transformation - require people to carry out a sequence of transformations in order to reach a specific goal. Even though you know exactly what the goal is, it’s often not obvious how the goal can be achieved. Complex problem solving.

20. Problem Solving Failures Functional Fixedness – The tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use Mental Set – When people persist in using problem- solving strategies that have worked in the past.

21. Approaches to Problem Solving Problem Space – Set of Possible Pathways to a Solution Considered by the Problem Solver. Trial and Error – Trying Possible Solutions and Discarding those that are In Error until one Works. Algorithm – A Methodical, Step-by-Step Procedure for Trying all Possible Alternatives in Searching for a Solution to a Problem. Heuristic – A Guiding Principle/ “Rule of Thumb” Used in Solving Problems or Making Decisions. Subgoals – Forming Subgoals helps with Intermediate Steps toward a Solution. Working Backwards – Start at End Solution and Work Backwards. Search For Analogies – Finding Similarities between 2 Problems help in the Finding of Solutions. Change Representation of Problem – Change the Way you Envision the problem.

22. Culture, Cognitive Style, and Problem Solving Field Dependent – Rely upon External Reference to make a Decision. Field Independent – Rely upon Internal Cognition to Break something into individual parts to Make a Decision. Easterners see Wholes (Holistic), Westerners see Parts (Analytic).

23. Decision Making Evaluating Alternatives and Making Choices Among Them

24. Theory of Bounded Rationality People tend to use simple strategies in decision making that focus on only a few facets of available options that result in “Irrational” Decisions. Making Choices is based upon preferences. Additive Strategy – List attributes, then rate desirability. Elimination Strategy – List attributes, then eliminate based on preferences.

26. Risky Decision Making – Making Decisions under Conditions of Uncertainty. Expected Value – Calculate the Probability and Returns of Taking a Risk then Evaluate. Subjective Utility – Making a risky decision that is worth it to the person. Like paying for insurance makes you feel safer. Heuristics in Judging Probabilities Availability Heuristic – Basing the Estimated Probability of an Event on the Ease with which Relevant Instances come to Mind. Representative Heuristic – Basing the Estimated Probability of an Event on How Similar it is to the Typical Prototype of that Event. Conjunction Fallacy – When People Estimate that the odds of Two Uncertain Events Happening Together are Greater than the Odds of Either Event Happening Alone Alternate Outcomes Effect – Occurs when People’s Belief about Whether an Outcome will Occur Changes Depending on how Alternative Outcomes are Distributed, Even though the Summed Probability of the Alternative Outcomes is Held Constant.