1. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Chapter 4 Physical Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood

2. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Physical Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood (1/5) I.Body growth A.Muscle and fat makeup B.Body proportions A.Cephalocaudal trend B.Proximodistal trend

3. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Physical Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood (2/5) II.Brain development A.The nervous system B.Neurophysiological methods C.Cerebral cortex and lateralization D.Sensitive periods in brain development

4. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Physical Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood (3/5) III.Influences on development A.Heredity B.Nutrition: breast-feeding and malnutrition C.Experience IV.Learning capacity: classical and operant conditioning, habituation and imitation

5. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Physical Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood (4/5) V.Motor Development A.Reaching and grasping B.Dynamic Systems theory VI.Perceptual Development A.Perceptual narrowing B.Changing visual preferences C.Differentiation theory

6. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Physical Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood (5/5) Note what’s missing from this list: cognitive and social development in infancy

7. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk  Height increases 50% by age 1, 75% by age 2  Weight doubles by 5 months, triples by 1 year  Average 2 year old: 28 lbs, 33”  Individual and group differences in size and rate of growth (Negatively accelerating positive sloped) © Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock Body Growth

8. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Body Growth During First Two Years Figure 4.1

9. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk  Group differences:  male/female  ethnic  Individual differences  Skeletal age: best estimate of physical maturity © Oksana Kuzmina/Shutterstock Individual and Group Differences in Growth

10. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Cephalocaudal  “Head to tail”  Lower part of body grows later than the head Proximodistal  “Near to far”  Extremities grow later than head, chest, and trunk Growth Trends Changes in Body Proportions ( Note: applies to motor development as well.

11. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk II. Brain Development: Neurons and Their Connective Fibers Neurons Nerve cells that store and transmit information Synapses Tiny gaps where fibers from different neurons come together but do not touch Neurotransmitters Chemicals that are released by neurons and cross the synapse

12. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Neurons and Their Connective Fibers

13. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk  Electroencephalogram (EEG)  Event-related potentials (ERPs)  Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)  Positron emission tomography (PET)  Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) Methods for Measuring Brain Functioning

14. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Regions of the Cerebral Cortex Figure 4.4

15. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Prefrontal Cortex  Region of the cerebral cortex responsible for thought, especially:  consciousness  inhibition of impulses  integration of information  use of memory, reasoning, planning, and problem-solving strategies  Undergoes rapid growth in the preschool and school years, and in adolescence

16. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Left Hemisphere  Verbal abilities  Positive emotion  Sequential, analytic processing Right Hemisphere  Spatial abilities  Negative emotion  Holistic, integrative processing Lateralization of the Cerebral Cortex

17. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk  At birth, hemispheres have already begun to specialize  Highly plastic cerebral cortex has high capacity for learning  If part of cortex is damaged, other areas can take over its tasks  Older children and adults retain some plasticity, but less than in young children Brain Plasticity

18. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Appropriate stimulation is vital for brain growth  Experience-expectant growth: depends on ordinary experiences  Experience-dependent growth: additional growth resulting from specific learning experiences © Andy Lim/Shutterstock III. Influences on Development: Sensitive Periods in Brain Development

19. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk  Sleep–wake pattern moves to night–day schedule during first year  By age 2, total sleep time declines from 18 to 12 hours per day  Sleep patterns are affected by social environment, cultural values © Michael Pettigrew/Shutterstock Changing States of Arousal

20. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk  Heredity  Nutrition:  breastfeeding vs. bottle-feeding  risks of overfeeding  Malnutrition © stefanolunardi/Shutterstock Influences on Early Growth

21. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk  Correct balance of fat and protein  Ensures nutritional completeness  Helps ensure healthy physical growth  Protects against disease Benefits of Breastfeeding © Pixel Memoirs/Shutterstock

22. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Malnutrition TypeConsequences Marasmus (diet low in all essential nutrients) Lasting physical damage; learning and behavioral effects; risk of death Kwashiorkor (diet very low in protein) Lasting physical damage; learning and behavioral effects Food insecurity Effects on physical growth; learning problems

23. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk IV. Learning Capacities in Infancy: Classical Conditioning Figure 4.5

24. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Reinforcer  Increases probability that behavior will occur again by  presenting desirable stimulus  removing unpleasant stimulus Punishment  Reduces probability that behavior will occur again by  presenting unpleasant stimulus  removing desirable stimulus Operant Conditioning

25. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Using Habituation to Study Infant Memory and Knowledge Figure 4.6

26. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk  Infants are born with primitive ability to imitate  Mirror neurons provide biological explanation  Powerful means of learning © Seleznev Oleg/Shutterstock Imitation

27. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk  Gross-motor development: crawling, standing, walking  Fine-motor development: reaching, grasping  Sequence is fairly uniform  Large individual differences in rate of motor progress Motor Development Sequence and Trends © S.Borisov/Shutterstock

28. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Motor Development: The First Two Years

29. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk  Mastery involves acquiring increasingly complex systems of action with each skill  Each new skill is joint product of  central nervous system development  the body’s movement capacity  the child’s goals  environmental supports for the skill V. Motor Skills as Dynamic Systems

30. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Rates and patterns of development affected by  early movement opportunities  environmental stimulation  child-rearing practices © XiXinXing/Shutterstock Cultural Variations in Motor Development

31. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Milestones of Reaching and Grasping Notice the proximodistal trend in development of fine motor skills

32. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk VI. Perceptual Development: Developments in Hearing 4–7 monthsSense of musical phrasing 6–7 months Distinguishes musical tunes based on variations in rhythmic patterns 6–8 months “Screens out” sounds not used in native language 6–12 months Detects sound regularities in human speech 7–9 months Begins to divide speech stream into wordlike units

33. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk  Supported by rapid maturation of eyes and visual centers in brain  Improvements:  2 months: focus  4 months: color vision  6 months: acuity, scanning, and tracking  6–7 months: depth perception Visual Development © Payless Images/Shutterstock

34. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Visual Development: Robert Fantz apparatus

35. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Milestones in Depth Perception 3–4 weeksSensitivity to motion cues 2–3 monthsSensitivity to binocular depth cues 5–7 monthsSensitivity to pictorial depth cues

36. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk The Visual Cliff Figure 4.11 Reveals link between crawling and depth perception

37. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Milestones in Pattern Perception 2 months Becomes sensitive to contrast in complex patterns; prefers them to simple patterns 2–3 months Thoroughly explores a pattern’s features, pausing briefly to look at each part 3–4 months Detects pattern organization, integrating pattern parts into organized whole 12 months Detects familiar objects represented by incomplete drawings

38. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Subjective Boundaries in Visual Patterns (~1 year) Figure 4.12 (Adapted from Rose, Jankowski, & Senior, 1997.)

39. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Milestones in Face Perception Birth– 1 month Prefers simple facelike pattern to other stimuli 2–4 months Prefers complex facial pattern to other complex stimulus arrangements Prefers mother’s detailed facial features to another woman’s 3 monthsDistinguishes features of different faces 5–12 months Perceives emotional expressions on faces as meaningful wholes

40. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Early Face Perception Figure 4.13 (From Cassia, Turati, & Simion, 2004; Johnson, 1999; Mondloch et al., 1999.)

41. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Milestones in Intermodal Perception BirthPerceives amodal sensory properties 3–4 months Matches faces with voices on basis of lip–voice synchrony, emotional expression, and speaker’s age and gender 4–6 months Perceives and remembers unique face–voice pairings of unfamiliar adults

42. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Infants  actively search for invariant features of the environment  notice stable relationships among features of a stimulus, detecting patterns such as individual faces  gradually detect finer and finer features Differentiation Theory

43. Copyright © 2014, 2011, 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Exploring Lifespan Development Third Edition  Laura E. Berk Readers may view, browse, and/or download material for temporary copying purposes only, provided these uses are for noncommercial personal purposes. Except as provided by law, this material may not be further reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, adapted, performed, displayed, published, or sold in whole or in part, without prior written permission from the publisher.