1. C HAPTER 6 Groups and Organizations

2. Chapter Outline  Concept of the Group  Types of Groups  Social Interaction in Groups  Formal Organizations  Dynamics of Formal Organizations

3. Questions for Consideration  How does group membership define one’s status?  What are the aspects of interaction in the groups that are identified in this video?  What is the importance of social cohesion?

4. Concept of the Groups  Groups – the people who are in contact with one another, who share some way of thinking, feeling, and behaving, who take one another’s behavior into account, and have one or more interests or goals in common.

5. Types of Groups  Social category – people who share a social characteristic.  Social aggregate – people who happen to be at the same place at the same time.

6. Primary Groups  Primary Groups – people who are emotionally close, know one another well, and seek one another’s company.  Characterized by relationships that are intimate, personal, caring and fulfilling.

7. Primary Groups  Conditions for having a primary relationship:  small group size, face-to-face contact, continuous contact, proper social environment

8. Conditions that Promote Primary Groups

9. Secondary Groups  Secondary Groups – people come together to accomplish a specific purpose.  These groups are impersonal and goal oriented. Involves only some of the segments of its members’ lives.  Many secondary groups are settings for primary relationships and then primary groups are offshoots of a secondary group.

10. Reference Groups  Individuals use various groups to evaluate themselves and to acquire attitudes, beliefs, values, and norms.  These groups are our reference groups.  You may or may not be a member. You assess self in terms of their standards, etc.  Includes families, teachers, doctors, political leaders, college Greek organizations, sports teams.

11. In-Groups & Out-Groups  In-groups – the group within which one has membership. Encourages intense identification and loyalty.

12. In-Groups & Out-Groups  Out-groups – groups of which one is not a member. The in-group members feel opposition and competition with out-groups and their members.

13. Group Boundaries  Formation and maintenance of in-groups and out-groups depends on the establishment and protection of group boundaries.  Clashes with outsiders; symbols, certain words and rituals, etc. are all used to help maintain group boundaries.

14. Social Networks  Social network – a web of social relationships that joins a person to other people and groups.  Links a person with a wide variety of individuals and groups.  Provides a sense of belonging and social support and help in the job market.

15. Functions of Social Networks 1. Provide a sense of belonging. 2. Furnish support in the form of help and advice. 3. Provide a useful tool for entering the labor market.

16. Five Types of Social Interaction in Groups 1. Cooperation – a form of interaction in which individuals or groups combine their efforts to reach some common goal. 2. Conflict – when people work against each other to obtain a larger share of the rewards. Many times defeating the opponent becomes more important than achieving the goal and may bring more joy than winning the prize.

17. Five Types of Social Interaction in Groups – Cont. 3. Social Exchange – a type of social interaction in which one person voluntarily does something for another, expecting a reward in return. The basis is reciprocity. 4. Coercion – an individual or group compels others to behave in certain ways. Central element is domination. 5. Conformity – behavior matching group expectations. We adapt our behavior to fit the behavior of those around us.

18. Social Interaction

19. The Business of Groups  Most groups are designed to accomplish certain tasks, which can range from planning leisure activities to manufacturing a product.  Robert Bales (1950) developed “interaction process analysis” to classify group interactions into several categories.  He also stated there are two basic problems that must be solved by any social system.

20. Two Problems of Groups  Instrumental Problems – those that are directly related to achieving the goals of the group.  Social-emotional Problems – problems involving individual satisfaction, disagreements, and other related matters that inevitably arise whenever individuals try to coordinate their activities.

21. Leadership in Groups  Ralph Stogdill has suggested that leaders will/should have the following combination of traits:  strong drive for responsibility & task completion  persistence in pursuit of goals  originality in problem solving  drive to exercise initiative in social situations  self-confidence and sense of personal identity

22. Leadership in Groups  willingness to accept consequences of decision and action  readiness to absorb interpersonal stress  willingness to tolerate frustration and delay  ability to influence other persons’ behavior  capacity to structure social interaction systems

23. Decisions and Groups  In some situations, group decisions can be shown to be superior to the decisions made by individuals.  Yet, group pressure can also harm the quality of decisions by leading to excessive conformity and loss of individuality.  The tendency to conform to group pressure has been dramatically illustrated in a classic experiment by Solomon Asch (1955).

24. Asch Experiment  Participants publicly denied their own senses in order not to deviate from majority opinion.  Numerous groups of male college students were assembled and asked to compare the length of lines on two cards.  Under group pressure, the “naïve” subject went along with the majority’s wrong opinion over 1/3 of the time.

25. Cards for Asch’s Experiments

26. Groupthink  Groupthink - a situation in which pressures toward uniformity discourage members of the group from expressing their reservations about group decisions.  Examples: Buildup to the invasion of Iraq in 2003; Kennedy administration decision to launch the Bay of Pigs invasion.

27. Questions for Consideration  What is bystander apathy?  Are there similarities between bystander apathy and groupthink?  In the absence of clearly defined responsibility, what happens?

28. Formal Organizations  Formal organizations - a type of secondary group that is deliberately created to achieve one or more specific goals.  The change from preindustrial to industrial society lends itself to the establishment of more and more formal organizations.  Citizens of modern society have become highly dependent on large organizations.

29. Bureaucracy  Most formal organizations are bureaucracies.  Bureaucracy – formal organization based on rationality and efficiency

30. Major Characteristics of Bureaucracy  A division of labor based on the principle of specialization.  A hierarchy of authority.  Organizational affairs are based on a system of rules and procedures.  Members of the organization maintain written records of their organizational activities.

31. Major Characteristics of Bureaucracy  Statuses in the organization, especially managerial ones, are considered full-time jobs.  Relationships within the organization are impersonal, devoid of favoritism.  Employees of bureaucratic organizations do not own their positions.

32. Advantages of Bureaucracy  The decisive reason for the advance of bureaucratic organization has always been its purely technical superiority over any other form of organization. The fully developed bureaucratic mechanism compares with other organizations exactly as does the machine with the nonmechanical modes of production.  Max Weber

33. Disadvantages of Bureaucracy  Dehumanizing social environment (iron cage of rationality)  Wastefulness  Parkinson’s Law – work always expands to fill the time available for its completion  Peter principle – individuals rise to their level of incompetence (moving into higher positions)  Goal displacement  Trained incapacity

34. Questions for Consideration  What is meant by “McDonaldization”?  How does Ritzer’s idea of McDonaldization relate to Weber’s “iron cage of rationality”?  Where else in our culture do you see McDonaldization occurring?

35. Differences Among Formal Organizations  Normative Organizations – members are free to join, considered voluntary organizations;  they have shared understandings that provide an important basis for coordination of members’ activities (e.g., churches, political parties, universities).

36. Differences Among Formal Organizations  Coercive Organizations – people are forced to join (e.g., camps, prisons, elementary schools).  Utilitarian Organizations – people join them because of the benefits they derive from membership (e.g., work, professional firms).

37. Informal Organization  Informal organization – a group (within a formal organization) guided by unofficial norms, rituals, and sentiments that are not part of the formal organization.  Usually form spontaneously based on common interests and personal relationships.

38. Iron Law of Oligarchy  Formulated by Robert Michels, the iron law of oligarchy states that power tends to become increasingly concentrated in the hands of a few members of any organization.  Those in power want to remain in power.  Politics in the U.S. is a prime example.

39. Organization and Oligarchy  Three organizational factors encourage oligarchy: 1. Organizations need a hierarchy of authority to delegate decision making. 2. Advantages held by leaders at the top of the hierarchy allow them to consolidate their power. 3. Encouraged by the characteristics of the followers. Non-elites believe that their leaders are more articulate, etc.

40. Race, Ethnicity, Gender, and Social Class in Organizations  By the nature of organizations, power is concentrated in relatively few positions at the top (generally held by white men from higher social classes).

41. Race, Ethnicity, Gender, and Social Class in Organizations  By the nature of organizations, power is concentrated in relatively few positions at the top (generally held by white men from higher social classes).  Glass ceiling – reflects that fact that so few women and minorities get promoted to the more powerful (higher) positions.

42. Organizations and Their Environments  The organizational environment consists of all the forces outside an organization that exert an actual or potential influence on the organization.  An interorganizational relationship is a pattern of interaction among authorized representatives of two or more formally independent organizations.

43. Interorganizational Relationships Involving the Police

44. Questions for Consideration  What might be some of the outside resources needed by the police that contribute to these various relationships?  What is it that makes some of these relationships cooperative, conflictual, and neutral?