2.  TO KNOW HOW UTILITARIAN’S MAKES ETHICAL DECISIONS KEY WORDS  MORAL DECISION  UTILITARIANISM  CONSEQUENTIALISM

3.  As we know ethical philosophy differs from the sciences because it is normative or prescriptive, rather than descriptive.  In other words, ethics tell us how ought to act or what we should do, while the sciences are more likely to observe how things are in nature or society.

5.  Utilitarianism says that the Result or the Consequence of an Act is the real measure of whether it is good or bad.  This theory emphasizes Ends over Means.  It is therefore, a teleological or consequentialist ethical theory.

6. Jeremy Bentham

7.  Utilitarianism was devised by Jeremy Bentham. (1758 – 1832)  He was born in London at a time of great scientific and social change.  With revolutions in France and America demands were being made for human rights and greater democracy.  Bentham worked on legal reform and wrote The principles of Morals and Legislation 1789

8.  We can divide his theory into three parts: 1. Motivation - His view on what drove human beings and what goodness and badness was about 2. The principle of utility - (usefulness) which is his moral rule. 3. The hedonic calculus - which is his system for measuring how good or bad a consequence is.

10.  TO UNDERSTAND BENTHAM’S THEORY OF MOTIVATION KEY WORDS  MOTIVATION  HEDONISM  MORAL FACT

11.  Human beings are motivated by pleasure and pain.  He is thus a Hedonist. He believes that pleasure is the ultimate motivation.  Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters  pain and pleasure  “It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do as well as to determine what we shall do” Bentham

12.  All humans pursue pleasure and seek to avoid pain.  This is a moral fact because pleasure and pain identify what is a good or a bad action  For humans the sole good is pleasure and the sole evil is pain.  For this reason Bentham’s Utilitarianism is called ‘Hedonic Utilitarianism’.

14.  TO KNOW AND APPLY THE PRINCIPLE OF UTILITY KEY WORDS  UTILITY  GREATEST GOOD  EXAMPLE

15.  Once Bentham identified pleasure and pain as the important qualities for identifying what is moral he developed the ‘Utility Principle’  The rightness or wrongness of an action is judged by its utility or usefulness to produce pleasure.  because pleasure produces a feeling of happiness it is used interchangeably in the utility principle.  The action that produces the most happiness is the most moral.

16.  This theory is teleological because it determines the goodness of an action by the end it produces.  Remember teleos in the greek means ends.  By the principle of utility is meant that principle which approves or disapproves of every action whatsoever, according to the tendency which it appears to have to augment or diminish the happiness of the party whose interest is in question: or, what is the same thing in other words, to promote or to oppose that happiness. I say of every action whatsoever, and therefore, not, only of every action of a private individual, but of every measure of government. Bentham

17.  We can shorten this to: “an action is right if it produces the greatest good for the greatest number’  good is the maximisation of pleasure.  The more pleasure that an action produces the better it is.  the larger the number of people that an action produces pleasure for, the better than action is.

18.  This theory is democratic because pleasure cant be for one person alone.  When facing a moral dilemma, Bentham argued that one should choose to act in such a way that brings about the maximum possible happiness for the most people.  However, the possible consequences of different possible actions must be measured clearly to establish which option generates the most pleasure and the least pain.

19.  a Doctor witnesses a car accident.  In the car are three people. 1. A pregnant woman 2. The young woman’s husband 3. The woman’s father.  All have an equal chance of survival but he can only save two person in time. One person is bound to die.  Who does he save and why?

20.  The doctor if he was a utilitarian would save…  The pregnant woman first – this is because she and the baby would have the happiness/pleasure of two people.  The husband would be next because the happiness of a new family would outweigh the happiness of one man.  The old man would be left because he has had his portion of happiness.

22.  TO KNOW AND APPLY THE HEDONIC CALCULUS KEY WORDS  HEDONIC CALCULUS  PLEASURE  QUANTATITIVE

23.  To explain Bentham’s hedonic calculus  To explain application of the calculus to situations

25.  a Doctor witnesses a car accident.  In the car are three people. 1. A pregnant woman 2. The young woman’s husband 3. The woman’s father.  All have an equal chance of survival but he can only save two person in time. One person is bound to die.  Who does he save and why?

26.  The rightness or wrongness of an action is judged by its utility or usefulness to produce pleasure.  because pleasure produces a feeling of happiness it is used interchangeably in the utility principle.  The action that produces the most happiness is the most moral.

27.  What if the circumstances are equal.  Two men are in the car.  Both are doctors  Both are GP’s with the same number of patients in their surgery.  Who does he save then?

28.  In calculating the greatest happiness for the greatest number we must determining the quantity of happiness that might be produced by an action,  we evaluate the possible consequences by applying several values: 1. Intensity 2. Duration 3. Certainty or uncertainty 4. propinquity or remoteness 5. Fecundity – likelihood of repetition 6. Purity 7. and Extent.

29.  The hedonic calculus is a quantitative assessment of a situation.  It is therefore, concerned with the quantity of pleasure it produces.  The greatest amount of pleasure for the greatest amount of people  The quantity of that pleasure is assessed against the Hedonic Calculus.  Quantitative is the opposite of qualitative which is concerned with quality rather than quantity.

30. Intensity The intensity of the pleasure caused by an act is reasonably self-explanatory. Mild pleasure is less valuable than intense pleasure, and so acts leading to the latter are to be preferred to acts leading to the former, other things being equal. Duration The duration of the pleasure caused by an act must also be taken into account when assessing the goodness of the act. Transient pleasure is less valuable than lasting pleasure, and so acts leading to the latter are to be preferred to acts leading to the former, other things being equal. rtainty The certainty criterion refers to the probability of the pleasure resulting from the act; how likely is it that the act will bring about the anticipated pleasure? If we must choose between an act that will definitely cause pleasure and an act that will only possibly bring about pleasure, then we do better to perform the former. Propinquity When deciding what to do, Bentham thought, we should bear in mind how distant are the anticipated benefits of each possible course of action. The more distant the benefits, in either space or time, the less weight we should give them in making our decision. Fecundity The fecundity of an act is the likelihood that the pleasures or pains that it causes will be followed by similar pleasures or pains. If the happiness that an act causes is likely to be followed by yet more happiness, then that act is better than a similar act that will cause only one isolated instance of happiness. Similarly, if the pain that an act causes is likely to be followed by still more pains, then that act is worse than it would otherwise be. Purity It is also important to be attentive to the purity of the pleasure and pain caused by an act. An act that causes only pleasure is better than one that causes the same amount of pleasure mixed with a little pain. When pleasure or pain are unmixed with their opposites, their purity is high; when they are so mixed, their purity is diminished. Extent The final criterion for quantifying the pleasure caused by an act is its extent: the more people enjoy the pleasure, the better. This criterion, unlike the previous six, was not among the original criteria described by Bentham, but was added by John Stuart Mill.

31.  In the hedonic calculus Bentham considers 1. How strong the pain or pleasure is 2. Whether it is short-lived or life-long 3. How likely is there to be pain or pleasure 4. If it is immediate 5. Likely to lead to more 6. Extent of combinations 7. The number of people affected  The balance of pleasures and pains is compared with those of other options and the best results determined.  The action that leads to this consequence is the MORALLY correct one to pursue.

32.  A) You attempt to help an elderly man across the street. He gets across safely.  Conclusion: the Act was a good act.  B) You attempt to help an elderly man across the street. You stumble as you go, he is knocked into the path of a car, and is hurt.  Conclusion: The Act was a bad act.

33.  If you can use eighty soldiers as a decoy in war, and thereby attack an enemy force and kill several hundred enemy soldiers, that is a morally good choice even though the eighty might be lost.  If lying or stealing will actually bring about more happiness and/or reduce pain, we should lie and steal in those cases.

34.  The decision at Coventry during WWII. The decision was made not to inform the town that they would be bombed.  The Ford Pinto case: A defective vehicle model was not recalled and repaired by Ford because they felt it was cheaper to pay the liability suits than to repairs all the defective cars.

35.  Explain Bentham’s utilitarianism. 30 marks  You should explain the three aspects of the theory  Motivation  Utility  Hedonic calculus  At each stage apply the theory to an example to explain it further.  Remember to use the PEE system.

37.  TO KNOW THE STRENGTHS OF BENTHAMS UTILITARIANISM KEY WORDS  CULTURAL DIVERSITY  INTUITIVE  HUMANISTIC

38. It is intuitive correct because common sense dictates that all situations are not identical and sometimes a different approach is needed.

39. It takes into account cultural diversity – each culture is allowed to operate equally and in parallel without one being considered more superior than the other.

40. It seeks to maximise a human goal its basis is therefore, grounded in humanity and does not seek authority from another source.

41. Bentham is not against moral rules rather he created the principle of utility as a method of social reform. It is a way of testing a law or legal maxim for its utility for human kind. If it does not meet the goals of a human then Bentham argued the law should be changed.

43.  TO KNOW THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF BENTHAMS UTILITARIANISM KEY WORDS  IMPRACTICAL  QUALITATIVE  NEGATIVE RESPONSIBILITY

44. It has the potential to justify any action SCENARIO

45. Impractical to suggest that we have the time to deliberate and apply the calculus to every situation we come across especially as we may not have the full information.

46. It is quantitative rather than qualitative in nature.

47. It does not treat everyone equally in a true sense of equality. They are only equal in that their vote matters.

48. DOCTRINE OF NEGATIVE RESPONSIBILITY

49. We are responsible for the foreseeable consequences of the choices we make.

50. Sometimes we choose to act, and sometimes we choose not to. Either way, we are making a choice that has consequences.

51. Therefore, we are just as responsible for the foreseeable consequences that we fail to prevent as for those that we bring about directly.

52. This means that “I didn’t do it” is not necessarily a good defense. The best defense is “I couldn’t have prevented it.” THE CASE OF THE SADISTIC GUARD

53.  HOW USEFUL IS UTILITARIANISM AS A THEORY FOR ETHICAL DECISION MAKING? 15 MARKS EVALUATION

55.  TO KNOW AND UNDERSTAND MILLS ADJUSTMENTS TO UTILITARIANISM KEY WORDS  QUALITY  QUALITATIVE  HIGHER AND LOWER PLEASURES

56.  Bentham’s theory can be divided into three parts: 1. Motivation - His view on what drove human beings and what goodness and badness was about 2. The principle of utility - (usefulness) which is his moral rule. 3. The hedonic calculus - which is his system for measuring how good or bad a consequence is.  Strengths and Weaknesses

57. 1. Mill was a child prodigy able to read several languages from an early age. He learnt Greek at 3 so he could read his fathers philosophy books. 2. His father was a follower of Bentham and the young Mill was heavily influenced by Bentham’s social reform policy. 3. Mill has been linked to the beginnings of modern feminism and could be considered the greatest British philosopher of the 19 th century. He has certainly been one of the most influencial.

58.  The well being of the individual is of the greatest importance and is most effectively gained when individuals are free to pursue their own ends. (subject only to the rule that protects this rule)  While mill accepted the utility principle he was concerned about the difficulty raised in the example of the sadistic guard.  If the greatest good for the greatest number is purely quantitative (based on quantity) what would stop one person from being extinguished by the majority.  Mill was aware that utilitarianism was being criticised for promoting desire and that it lowered human nature to the level of swine.

59.  Mill distinguishes between higher and lower pleasures  Higher pleasures are qualitatively better and more important that lower pleasures.  “Human beings have more than animal desires and once we know that we do not regard anything as true happiness that include satisfaction of those desires.” Mill.

60.  Some pleasures are better than others  A happiness which does not include a higher pleasure was not considered a happiness by human beings.  Higher pleasures should be considered better even if we find ourselves unhappy because we have forgone quantity.  “It is better to be a human being satisfied that a pig satisfied. Better to be Socrates dissatisfied that a fool satisfied.” Mill.

61.  Pleasures of the mind are higher than those of the body.  To pursue purely bodily pleasures – food, drink, sex, was not as high an objective as those that are intellectually demanding.  The background of this view lies in Mills classical philosophical education.  For Plato philosophical thinking is the highest activity for humans.

62. 1. A woman is gang raped by 10 men. The greatest pleasure implies that this action is A-OK. 2. A mother of four has an abortion because her other children did not want to share their room. 3. The sadistic guard?

63.  UTILITARIANISM  HEDONIC  CALCULUS  BENTHAM  QUANTITY  HAPPINESS  CONSEQUENTIALIST  TELEOLOGICAL  MOTIVATION

65.  TO KNOW THE WEAKNESSES OF BENTHAMS UTILITARIANISM KEY WORDS  COMMUNITY CENTRED  CHRISTIANITY  NEIGHBOUR

67. 1. Some pleasures are better than others. 2. Higher and lower pleasures. 3. The greatest good should be typified by those actions which maximise higher pleasures. 4. This is how we can overcome the weaknesses of Bentham’s Utilitarianism.

68. 1. The utilitarian tendency to justify any action is severely limited. The concept of higher and lower pleasures eliminate any of the negative side effects. 2. It still takes into account the situation but also maximises the importance of the individual. 3. It expresses wholly the Christian teaching of loving your neighbour as yourself. 4. Community centred

69.  In the golden rule of Jesus we read the complete spirit of the ethics of utility.  ‘To do as you would be done by’ and ‘to love your neighbour as yourself’ This constitutes the ideal perfection of utilitarian morality.

70. 1. Elitist – who are you to say that your pleasure is higher than mine? Is listening to Beethoven comparable to playing chess? What about someone who enjoys the challenge of golf … not everybody is trained to appreciate the higher pleasures in life. “It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.” “And if the fool, or the pig, are of a different opinion, it is because they only know their own side of the question. The other party to the comparison knows both sides.” who is qualified to make these decisions?

71. 2. How much quantity of lower pleasure would outweigh the quality of a higher pain. Gang rape 1-10 1-100 1-1000 1-10000 1-10000000000000000000000? Are something’s just wrong?

72. 3. More people tend to follow lower pleasures than higher pleasures. Is this really the greatest happiness for the greatest number? 4. If one must decide the probable outcome of an act before knowing whether it is good or bad, how can children learn to evaluate acts, since they know so little of what consequences might arise from their actions?

73. 5. Utilitarianism plays fast and loose with God’s commandments. If lying, stealing, or killing could lead to an increase of happiness for the greatest number, we are told we should lie, steal or kill. Isn’t that a rejection of God’s commands?

74.  What is the nature of God?  Does God make arbitrary rules just to see if we will obey?  Does God make rules that He knows will lead to our happiness?  If the latter statement is true, doesn’t it make sense God would want us to use our God-given reason to look at the situation?

75.  “If it be a true belief that God desires, above all things,  the happiness of his creatures, and that this was his purpose in their creation, utility is not a godless doctrine,  but more profoundly religious than any other.....whatever God has though fit to reveal on the subject of morals must fulfill the requirements of utility in a supreme degree.”

76.  EXPLAIN MILLS ADJUSTMENTS TO UTILITARIANISM 30 MARKS  EVALUATE WHICH IS BETTER – BENTHAM OR MILL’S UTLITARIANISM. 15 MARKS

78.  TO UNDERSTAND THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ACT AND RULE UTILITARIANISM.  TO KNOW AND UNDERSTAND RULE UTILITARIANISM AND ITS CRITICISMS KEY WORDS  ACT  RULE  PRINCIPLES

79. 1. CANT JUSTIFY ANY ACTION 2. MAXIMISES THE IMPORTANCE OF THE INDIVIDUAL 3. EXPRESSES CHRISTIAN TEACHINGS 4. COMMUNITY CENTRED 1. PLAYS FAST AND LOOSE WITH GODS COMMANDMENTS 2. GODLESS 3. WHEN DO LOWER PLEASURES OUTWEIGHT HIGHER PLEASURES 4. MORE PEOPLE TEND TO FOLLOW LOWER PLEASURES.

80.  Utilitarianism can be described as either ACT or RULE.  Bentham and Mill use ACT utilitarianism  This maintains that whenever possible the principle of utility should be directly applied for each individual circumstance.  When faced with a moral choice a person must decide what action will lead to the greatest good in a particular circumstance.  If lying will produce the greatest pleasure they should lie.  If in the next situation telling the truth will produce the greatest pleasure then they should tell the truth

81.  As well as using Act utilitarianism, Mill posited another form. Rule Utilitarianism.  Rule utilitarianism focuses on general RULES that everybody should follow to bring about the greatest good for that community.  We should vote on the best possible result for the whole community which produces the most happiness and that should become a rule for society to live by.  It creates RULES

82. ETHICAL DECISIONS MADE BY THE PRINCIPLE OF UTILITY RULE ACT MILL/PREFERENCE BENTHAM/MILL An action is judged by the.......... it produces. The more.......... it produces the more moral the action. You fill the gap with whatever concept the theory suggests. A rule is judged by the.......... it produces. The more.......... it produces the more moral the rule. You fill the gap with whatever concept the theory suggests.

83.  In a situation I must obey the rule even if it doesn’t lead to the greatest pleasure for me in this situation.  Driving on the left – you should always drive on the left even if it doesn’t always provide happiness (traffic jam) because it will produce a greater overall good.  A person should never lie because it doesn’t bring about the greatest good for the community.

84.  How does this stay in with the consequentialist ideas?  Rule utilitarianism instead of focusing on the consequences of actions it focuses on the consequences of rules.  A rule is good if its consequences result in overall happiness.

85.  Democratic – it involves the whole community.  It could increase the benefits of the minority as they will be given their chance to vote on the rulings.  Rules could be absolute for a period and change according to societal need.

86.  No guarantee that the minority will be protected. Slavery would be handy and as long as it wasn't the majority that were enslaved it would be morally acceptable.  R M HARE – would say it is inflexible – a maniac is chasing someone into a shop. The maniac asks the shopkeeper who following utilitarianism would be unable to lie hands him over.  Trying to have its cake and eat it. You cannot have the benefits of absolutism and still maintain the benefits of relativism.

88.  TO KNOW AND UNDERSTAND PREFERENCE UTILITARIANISM AND ITS CRITICISMS KEY WORDS  PREFERENCE  HUMANISTIC  INTERESTS

89.  Peter singer (1946 - now) argues for a modified version of utilitarianism called preference utilitarianism or best consequence utilitarianism.  You should maximise the best interests of those affected, rather than create the most pleasure and least pain.  Ethical decisions should the best interests (or preferences) of those affected rather than create the most pleasure  Everybody's interests must be given equal consideration.

90.  “This other version of utilitarianism judges actions, not by their tendency to maximise pleasure or minimise pain, but by the extent to which they accord with the preference of any beings affected by the action or its consequences.” Singer  What matters is the satisfaction of an individual persons interests or desires.  Sacrificing an individual because it benefits the majority becomes more problematic.

91.  “According to preference utilitarianism, an action contrary to the preference of any being is, unless this preference is outweighed by contrary preferences, wrong. Killing a person who prefers to continue living is therefore wrong, other things being equal.” Singer.  outweighed by contrary preferences????

92.  Preference utilitarianism tries to maximise the satisfaction of people’s preferences.  This requires considerable thought.  When a person thinks ethically they must weigh up all of the interests of the people involved.  A person must do their best to take into all the interests into consideration  “Choose the course of action which brings the best consequences, on balance, for all affected.” Singer.

93.  This type of deliberation should only take place in certain circumstances.  Such as when a person is trying to decide by what principles they will live their life by.  Should we share the fruit we have picked?  It seems to have better consequences the more we share. If all do this then the best consequences will be achieved – a fair distribution.  However, if some decided to stop gathering fruit then things would not go well and a fair and just distribution would not be achieved.

94. 1. It is intuitive correct because common sense dictates that all situations are not identical and sometimes a different approach is needed. 2. It takes into account cultural diversity – each culture is allowed to operate equally and in parallel without one being considered more superior than the other. 3. It seeks to maximise a human goal its basis is therefore, grounded in humanity and does not seek authority from another source. 4. Interests overcomes the issue with happiness.

95. 1. It has the potential to justify any action 2. Impractical to suggest that we have the time to deliberate and apply the calculus to every situation we come across especially as we may not have the full information. 3. It is quantitative rather than qualitative in nature. 4. Requires you to predict the future.

96.  EXPLAIN WHY PREFERENCE UTILITARIANISM IS A FORM OF RULE UTILITARIANISM.

98.  TO CONSIDER WHICH IS MORE IMPORTANT FOR UTILITARIANISM THE ENDING OF PAIN AND SUFFERING OR THE INCREASE OF PLEASURE. KEY WORDS  PLEASURE  PAIN  HAPPINESS

99.  Bentham’s theory maximises pleasure. We know this because it is the quantity of pleasure that determines the moral thing to do.  A problem with Bentham is this appears to create moral dilemmas. Gang rape.  Mill’s adjusts however focus not on the removal of the woman's pain but redefining pleasure to make the event less moral.  Preference utilitarianism says that hedonism is uncertain and difficult to understand so he removes the concept of pleasure and pain and introduces the idea preference therefore, his utilitarianism is concerned with neither. This is also difficult to understand so easy to reject.  Rule utilitarianism could possibly be concerned with the removal of pain. This is because it bans pain causing actions i.e., lying and murder for the majority. Therefore, it could be seen as removing pain.  In conclusion I believe that utilitarianism is concerned more with the maximisation of pleasure rather than the removal of pain. Despite the difficulties with identifying what is pleasure, I believe that most theories seek to redefine the pleasure being caused when making improvements rather than focusing on the removal of the prospective pain, demonstrating that utilitarianism despite what theorists claim is always concerned with the quantity of pleasure caused by an action.

100.  ESSAY QUESTION B  WHAT IS MORE IMPORTANT THE PURSUIT OF PLEASURE OR THE AVOIDANCE OF PAIN. 15 MARKS

102.  TO CONSIDER HOW WORTHWHILE THE PURSUIT OF PLEAUSRE AND IS IT ALL THAT PEOPLE DESIRE? KEY WORDS  LOVE  WISDOM  INTELLEGENCE

104.  TO KNOW THE COMPATBILITY OF UTILITARIANISM AND CHRISTIANITY KEY WORDS  GOLDEN RULE  TEN COMMANDMENTS  AGAPE

105.  There are a number of elements of utilitarianism that are compatible with religion and in particular Christianity.

106.  Mill linked the principle of utility to Jesus’ Golden Rule:  “Love your neighbour as yourself” “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you”  Both the principle of utility and the Golden Rule express the idea that your own concerns are on a level with those of other people.

107.  Based on the general good of others – takes a set of absolute laws and applies them universally just as the apodictic 10 commandments from Exodus 20:1-17.

108.  A more selfish philosophy as it is based on the good of those immediately affected by an action and not the ‘general good’. This is more difficult to compare to Christian Ethics.

109.  Situation Ethics is relativist in its approach to morality since it is based on the single maxim, agape love. It can be used as an example of a Christian relativist approach because Fletcher intended it to be adopted by the Christian church; the Roman Catholic Church rejected it but the Methodist Church embraced it. Thus Situation Ethics it has been dubbed ‘Christian Utilitarianism’.  Joseph Fletcher: ‘justice is love distributed’  Justice is concerned with the greatest good of society and takes humans into account collectively. Fletcher comments that this is the same as Bentham and Mill’s principle of utility replacing ‘good’ with ‘agape’.  ‘The greatest agape for the greatest number’  Fletcher argues: the hedonistic calculus becomes the agapeistic calculus

110.  As well as the comparative parts there are number of contrasting elements.

111.  (An example of a Christian absolutist approach to ethics)  According to Natural Law theorists (the ethical approach adopted by the Roman Catholic Church), actions are intrinsically right or wrong – deontological and not consequential: the means do not justify the end.  Natural Law deals with a love on an individual basis rather than a collective good. The God of the bible is portrayed as a personal God – not the God of Situation Ethics who is concerned with the ‘greater good of society’ or the sacrifice of the few for the sake of the majority.  But situation ethics requires us to love all individuals as we love ourselves.

112.  A classic example of the clash between Utilitarianism and Natural Law:  The introduction of the Rubella Vaccine in October 94 when two Roman Catholic schools rejected it on the basis that it was developed from a dead foetus (an intrinsic wrong)  Utilitarianism – would justify the vaccine on the basis of its beneficial consequences  Natural Law – would refuse to benefit from the consequences of an evil action

113.  In St. Paul’s first epistle to the Romans he writes on two separate occasions:  “One may not do evil that good may come”  This is the same as saying ‘the end does not justify the means.’ Therefore, Christian Ethics takes the Kantian-minded absolutist approach to moral decision making by arguing for the intrinsic value of humans; that they should be treated as ‘ends in themselves’ (Kant).

114.  We are made in God’s image as the climax of his work - Genesis 1:27 “So God created man in his own image”  Life is divinely and uniquely ordained from conception - Psalm 139:13 “For you created my inmost being; you knit me together in my mother’s womb”  From this we can deduce that humans have intrinsic as opposed to instrumental value because they were purposely and uniquely designed in the loving image of their creator and therefore should not be treated as a means to an end but as ends in themselves (Kant)

115.  Peter Singer’s Preference Utilitarianism is concerned with maximising preference satisfaction, contrary to the Christian idea of being self-sacrificing.

116.  According to Christian ethics, real happiness comes through service to others; turning the other cheek and forgiving unto seventy times seven times. This is not the kind of happiness that can be measured in Utilitarian terms. However, you cannot understand Christian ethics without exploring what it means to love oneself.

117.  Whether you accept the combination of Christian ethics with Utilitarianism depends which side of the fence you sit on.  Christianity can either be:  absolute – ten commandments, natural law  Relative – love your neighbour and situation ethics.

118.  As well as that it depends on your view of the human character.  Utilitarianism says that humans are instrumental. They can be used as a means to an end.  Christianity – humans have an intrinsic quality and therefore they cannot be used for a purpose.

120.  TO APPLY UTILITARIANISM TO EMBRYONIC RESEARCH KEY WORDS  EMBRYO  PERSONHOOD  RIGHT TO LIFE

121.  Embryo Research is the resultant of doing something useful with spare embryos which are fertilised to maximise chances of pregnancy through IVF.

122.  The benefits of embryo research come mainly from stem cell usage  it is hoped that stem cells can be stimulated to develop any tissue or organ of the human body.  A cure for Alzheimers and Parkinsons may be possible in the near future as a result of embryo research.

123.  The main issues that arise with embryo research are;  personhood; whether or not an embryo can be considered as a person with rights  the right to life; the extent to which an embryo has the right to life and the morality of discarding it for research.

124.  Bentham maintained that his hedonic calculations should only be applied to those who can suffer.  Embryos and this early stage in development do not have the capacity to feel pain, and thus cannot be measured by Bentham’s Hedonic Calculus.  Therefore, the use of embryos for testing purposes is morally valid.

125.  Mill defines a person as someone who has the ability to exercise their freedom. An embryo has no autonomy and therefore is not a person.  For this reason it cannot feature in the higher and lower pleasure argument.  An embryo may (if possible) suffer a lower pleasure but because it is not intellectually developed it cannot suffer emotional or psychological pain.  Therefore, we can justify the use of embryo research because the amount of higher pleasure it will produce outweighs the lower pleasure.

126.  However, the benefits of embryo research are justifiable in Utilitarian terms.  The intensity of pain caused by diseases is great, the duration of which is lifelong (e.g. Parkinsons, Alzheimers).  The pleasure derived form the provision of cures for degenerative diseases thus outweigh the costs of embryo research.

127.  Rule Utilitarianism starts with general principles from which specific acts can be prohibited without exception to the rule. It follows rules that promote the greatest happiness, for example the rule:  Human life should be preserved  This rule can be seen as promoting the greatest net utility. But does this apply to an embryo in an early stage of development?  Again, this raises the issue of personhood.  If the embryo is accepted as a form of human life then it should be preserved, but it may not be considered a person with rights at this early stage.

129.  TO APPLY UTILITARIANISM TO ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES KEY WORDS  ENVIRONMENT  GLOBAL WARMING  EXTINCTION

130.  TO KNOW HOW UTILITARIAN’S MAKES ETHICAL DECISIONS KEY WORDS  MORAL DECISION  UTILITARIANISM  CONSEQUENTIALISM

131.  Environmental Ethics is the relationship between human beings and the environment in which they live  ALAN MARSHAL According to Marshall, over the last 65 million years there has been a natural ecological balance between the animate and the inanimate. However, over the last 300 years rapid industrialisation has led to a massive imbalance.  ISSUES  GLOBAL WARMING  POLLUTION  OVER POPULATION  ANIMAL RIGHTS

132.  Some Utilitarian approaches therefore are more satisfactory than others when it comes to applying them to environmental ethics.  An example follows to demonstrate this:  Qualitative Utilitarianism  Act-consequentialism  Places emphasis on the collective good of society  Its theory of goods is hedonistic with special weighting given to higher pleasures (J.S. Mill)  Its community is inter-generational

133.  Qualitative Utilitarianism thus deduces that the moral course of action is the maximisation of higher pleasures for present and future generations.  It is worth noting that Mill puts the enjoyment and study of nature at the top of his list of the higher pleasures – therefore environmental preservation is imperative.

134.  Preference Utilitarianism  Rule-consequentialistic  Places emphasis on individuals  Its theory of goods is concerned with preference satisfaction  Its community includes only the immediate generation  Preference Utilitarianism thus deduces that the moral course of action is the maximisation of preference satisfaction for the current generation. Assuming that neglecting the environment bears no immediate effect on the current generation, the case for environmental preservation is weak.

135.  In ‘Practical Ethics,’ Peter Singer cites an example in which he compares the benefits of building a hydro-electric dam across a gorge that would create employment, stimulate economic growth and provide a cost-effective energy supply with the associated costs.  Such costs would include the loss of a beauty spot favoured by walkers, a good spot for white- river rafting and the destruction of a habitat for some endangered species and wildlife.

136.  For the Preference Utilitarian the preference satisfaction of a cheap source of electricity to provide power for all of our modern-day requirements outweighs the preferences of the walkers, white water rafters, and the non-human animals.  For the Qualitative Utilitarian however, the long term interests of future generations out- weight the short-term costs of higher energy conservation.

137.  THIS IS TO BE COMPLETED NEXT LESSON IN CLASS.  EXPLAIN THE DEVELOPMENT OF UTILITARIANISM WITH REFERENCE TO RULE UTILITARIANISM. 30 MARKS  EVALUATE THE USEFULNESS OF UTILITARIANISM FOR ANSWERING AN ETHICAL ISSUE OF YOUR CHOICE. 15 MARKS

139.  MOCK EXAM QUESTION UNDERTIMED CONDITIONS. KEY WORDS  MORAL DECISION  UTILITARIANISM  CONSEQUENTIALISM

140.  Grade boundaries have changed therefore, the marks some of you received had to be changed accordingly.  Look at the mark scheme and consider why you have been placed in the bracket you have been.

141.  ISSUES ARISING WERE:  ABSOLUTISM VS RELATIVISM  DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF ACT UTILITARIANISM  WHAT IS RULE UTILITARIANISM  MILLS UTILITARIANISM – WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF HIGHER AND LOWER PLEASURES.  INCREASE PLEASURE VS NO PAIN

142. PART OF THE THEORYPERSON GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF UTILITARIANISM INCLUDING THE CONTRAST BETWEEN CONSEQUENTIALISM AND DEONTOLOGICAL THINKING KIM ACT UTILITARIANISMRUBY BENTHAMS UTILITARIANISMKATIE MILLS UTILITARIANISMMEGAN PREFERENCE UTILITARIANISMLLEWLEN UTILITARIANISM AND RELIGIONEBONY STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF BENTHAM BROOKE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESS OF MILLYUE MAN RULE UTLITARIANISMJADE THE INCREASE OF PLEASURE VS THE REMOVAL OF PAIN. GARETH