1. Hymes’ Functions Jan Blommaert

2. Intellectual powerhouse and empire builder Intellectual powerhouse and empire builder –Reed, Indiana, Harvard, Berkeley, Pennsylvania, Virginia –Linguistics, anthropology, folklore, education –Students and colleagues: Bauman, Sherzer, Darnell, Silverstein, Ochs, Irvine, Hornberger, Gumperz, Ervin- Tripp, Goffman, Cicourel, Jakobson, Burke But never wrote a synthesis of his theoretical insights But never wrote a synthesis of his theoretical insights –1974: Foundations in Sociolinguistics: An Ethnographic Approach –1996: Ethnography, Linguistics, Narrative Inequality: Toward an Understanding of Voice

3. Main concerns Understanding the role of language/speech in individual lives and in the lives of collectives Understanding the role of language/speech in individual lives and in the lives of collectives Understanding linguistic inequality as a practical and theoretical problem Understanding linguistic inequality as a practical and theoretical problem Developing a fully social and humanistic theory of language/speech Developing a fully social and humanistic theory of language/speech –Paradigm shift in linguistics: ‘sociolinguistics’ –Extending anthropological tradition: ‘ethnography’

4. Background 1: linguistics 1957: Chomsky « Syntactic structures » 1957: Chomsky « Syntactic structures » –Object of linguistics: The ideal speaker in a contextless environment –Distinction between Competence (abstract grammatical capacity) and Performance (actualization of competence) –Linguistics concerned with Competence: structure, grammar –Theoretically elaborate: model of a social- scientific ‘theory’

5. Background 2: Anthropology Boas-Sapir-Whorf tradition of understanding the place of language in culture Boas-Sapir-Whorf tradition of understanding the place of language in culture Ethnography: comprehensive description of cultural phenomena (incl. Language) Ethnography: comprehensive description of cultural phenomena (incl. Language) –Focus on context of cultural phenomena Language structure is related to culture, informs us about culture (or vice versa) Language structure is related to culture, informs us about culture (or vice versa) Sapir-Whorf thesis: linguistic relativity Sapir-Whorf thesis: linguistic relativity (different forms can have the same function)

6. Hymes the anti-Chomskyan Responds to Chomsky from within anthropological paradigm Responds to Chomsky from within anthropological paradigm Distinction between STRUCTURE and USE Distinction between STRUCTURE and USE Structure = concern of Chomskyan linguistics Structure = concern of Chomskyan linguistics Structure AND use is concern of ethnography of speaking Structure AND use is concern of ethnography of speaking

7. EoS = continuation of anthropological paradigm in response to Chomsky EoS = continuation of anthropological paradigm in response to Chomsky –Study of language should be study of ALL of language, i.e. also its use –Its use is also rule-governed and can be approached theoretically –If we do that, we may get a better idea of structure as well  Linguistic relativity was about language structure

8. Second linguistic relativity Sapir-Whorf relativity: different form, same function Sapir-Whorf relativity: different form, same function –In different cultures, the same things can be achieved with very different linguistic forms Hymesian relativity: same form different function Hymesian relativity: same form different function –In different cultures, the same linguistic forms can have very different patterns of use

9. Hymesian relativity is underlying to Sapir-Whorf relativity because it looks at language from within a wider pattern Hymesian relativity is underlying to Sapir-Whorf relativity because it looks at language from within a wider pattern Distinction between language and speech Distinction between language and speech Speech = totality of (cultural) communicative forms, including language (linguistic patterns) Speech = totality of (cultural) communicative forms, including language (linguistic patterns) Speech is always repertoire Speech is always repertoire Linguistic forms need to be considered as part of a repertoire of speech forms Linguistic forms need to be considered as part of a repertoire of speech forms The place of linguistic forms in this repertoire needs to be described and understood The place of linguistic forms in this repertoire needs to be described and understood

10. So: EoS looks at repertoires of speech forms and determines the place of particular resources within this repertoire So: EoS looks at repertoires of speech forms and determines the place of particular resources within this repertoire The same linguistic forms can have very different places in the repertoires of different cultures The same linguistic forms can have very different places in the repertoires of different cultures Function = place within a repertoire Function = place within a repertoire Determining such functions is the essential task of EoS (and has been neglected by linguistics and pre-Hymesian anthropology) Determining such functions is the essential task of EoS (and has been neglected by linguistics and pre-Hymesian anthropology)

11. A simple example Newspapers Newspapers –Compare newspapers in Belgium with newspapers in Tanzania (typologically very similar) –In Belgium: ‘mass media’ and ‘reflection of public opinion’ –Belgium:  very high literacy rate (literacy in standard language is part of most people’s repertoire)  Most people (the masses) buy and read newspapers  Linguistically homogeneous/centralized: newspapers are in ‘the language of the masses’

12. –Tanzania:  Very low literacy rate (literacy is not part of most people’s repertoire)  Newspapers are in English; does not belong to the repertoire of most people  Most people who are literate in English are clustered in cities: very small elite  The language of newspapers in Tanzania occupies a very different place in the repertoires than in Belgium > Newpapers are an urban elite medium in Tanzania

13. From function to inequality Concern for repertoire is anthropological or sociological Concern for repertoire is anthropological or sociological –Forces one to look into the fabric of societies –Becomes a critical social science, because: Repertoires are collections of unevenly distributed resources Repertoires are collections of unevenly distributed resources –Compare literacy in Belgium and Tanzania –Has an effect on what people can do with speech resources –Some people have a lot, some a little

15. Speech resources have (uneven) value Speech resources have (uneven) value Are organised according to norms and customs that rank resources-in-use Are organised according to norms and customs that rank resources-in-use The deployment of resources is a socially evaluated act, which comes with a price (good speakers – bad speakers, good language – bad language) The deployment of resources is a socially evaluated act, which comes with a price (good speakers – bad speakers, good language – bad language) Communicating well (= normatively) matters, is a problem to people and requires work Communicating well (= normatively) matters, is a problem to people and requires work Language as CONSTRAINT, not just opportunity Language as CONSTRAINT, not just opportunity

16. Norms are social and cultural codes of use Norms are social and cultural codes of use –Of grammar –Of language variety and code –Of ‘style’ in performace A competent member of a society can handle the norms, including shifts between them A competent member of a society can handle the norms, including shifts between them Because multiple norms are the rule (use of speech is never ‘stable’) Because multiple norms are the rule (use of speech is never ‘stable’) –In multilingual environments –But equally in ‘monolingual’ environments

17. So we see A transition from ‘language’ to ‘resources’ A transition from ‘language’ to ‘resources’ Ordered in repertoires Ordered in repertoires In which resources have a place In which resources have a place Which is organised by sociocultural norms of use and shifts Which is organised by sociocultural norms of use and shifts And involves uneven access to different resources And involves uneven access to different resources Due to social and cultural structures (e.g. young children are illiterate) Due to social and cultural structures (e.g. young children are illiterate)

18. A whole new vocabulary to talk about communication A whole new vocabulary to talk about communication –Not languages but particular resources –Everyone is ‘multilingual’ even when ‘monolingual’ –Meanings are effects of social and cultural factors –Diversity and inequality are essential in understanding the system of speech in society