1. Culture, Language, and Communication

2. Language is universal psychological ability in humans
Language forms basis for creation and maintenance of human cultures
Language differences reflect important differences between cultures

3. The Structure of Language
All languages have:
Lexicon
Syntax and Grammar
Phonology
Semantics
Pragmatics
Phonemes: smallest, most basic units of sound in a language
Morphemes: smallest, most basic units of meaning

4. CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON VERBAL LANGUAGE

5. Cultural Influences on Language Acquisition
Culture influences language acquisition at very early stage
Culture influences all aspects of language
Through use of language, individual transformed into agent of culture

6. Culture has a powerful influence on verbal and nonverbal encoding and decoding processes.
Culture affects not only language lexicons, but also the function and or pragmatics.

7. Research has shown that the languages of individualistic cultures allow pronouns to be dropped from sentences. Other research supports cultural differences in other aspects of the communication process, including:

8. Language differences across cultures
Culture and Lexicons
Self-Other Referents
In U.S., use of “I”, “we”, but in Japan how to refer self and other dependent on the relationship between you and the other person
This reflects importance of status and group differentiation in Japan

9. Language differences across cultures
Counting Systems
Different objects counted by different suffix in Japan
Basis for number
In Japanese (and many languages), bases for numbers on the words for one through ten

10. Language differences across cultures
Culture and Pragmatics
Drop of pronouns
Less individualistic cultures tend to drop pronouns
Language use and communication styles
Collectivistic cultures use principle of equity involving greater social penetration when communicating with ingroups
Cultural differences in apology, self-disclosure
High vs. low context cultures

11. In-group vs. outgroup communication,
Use of apologies,
Self-disclosure,
Compliments, and
Interpersonal criticism.

12. At a more technical level, culture can affect the structure of thought processes ala Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.
Despite legitimate criticism of the link between culture and thinking, research on bilingualism shows a close relationship between culture and language.

13. Language and Thought: The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: speakers of different language think differently because of differences in languages
In support of Sapir-Whorf: Navajo children more likely to categorize objects by shapes than European or African American children
Challenging Sapir-Whorf: Dani speakers did not have lower ability to discriminate or remember colors than Americans even though they only have two color terms (dark and light)

14. Comments on Bilingualism
The unique circumstances surrounding communication by individuals who speak more than one language has generated much interest among experimental psychologists, psycho linguists and educators and politicians.
I will address only a few critical issues.

15. Perceptions of Bilinguals
People have negative impressions and stereotypes about people communicating in their second language
Foreign language processing difficulties: cognitive difficulties while processing information due to lack of fluency in speaking a language
Foreign language effect: temporary decline in thinking ability of people using foreign language

16. Language Development of Bilinguals
The context in which the various languages are acquired is a good starting point for our discussion of bilingualism.
Compound vs. coordinate development

17. Subordinate Development
Meaning
Language A
Language B

18. Compound Development
Meaning
Language A Language B

19. Coordinate Development
Meaning Meaning
Language A Language B

20. Linguistic Interference
“…those instances of deviation from the norms of either language which occur in the speech of bilinguals as a results of familiarity with more than one language.”

21. Types of linguistic interference
1. Semantic
2. Syntactic
3. Lexical
4. Phonological
Linguistic Integration?

22. Psychological Differences as a Function of Bilingualism
Bilinguals have two mental representations of culture encoded in their minds
Reasons for language-related shifts in personality
Culture-affiliation hypothesis: immigrant bilinguals tend to affiliated themselves with values and beliefs of culture associated with language currently speaking
Minority group-affiliation hypothesis: immigrant bilinguals adopt behavioral stereotypes of majority culture about their minority as their own

23. Psychological Differences as a Function of Language
Code frame switching: bilinguals switch back and forth from one cultural meaning system to the other when accessing one language or another

24. Cognitive independence vs. interdependence
Primary DV = Reaction Time
Blue
Green
Red

25. Red
Green
Blue

26. Azul
Verde
Amarillo

27. Overarching Conclusions
Bilinguals access different cultural systems in their minds when speaking their respective languages.
Culture also affects nonverbal behavior. Despite the well-documented universality of many facial expressions such as anger, contempt, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise, cultures differ in display rules for these pan cultural expressions.

28. Overarching Conclusions
In addition, there are well-established cultural differences in gestures, gaze and visual attention, interpersonal space, body posture, and voice and vocal characteristics.
Basically then, both verbal and nonverbal encoding and decoding processes are influenced by culture.

29. Culture and the Decoding Process
Cultural filters,
Ethnocentrism,
Emotions, and
Value Judgments

30. Culture and Stereotypes
Concerning communication, our stereotypes prime our expectations.
We attend selectively to cues and events that support our stereotypes and ignore, perhaps unconsciously, cues and events that challenge them.

31. Culture and Social Cognition
This has to do with how we interpret the actions of others—the causal attributions we make.
Basically, the cultural differences in this area refer to proneness to make dispositional versus situational attributions of others behavior.

32. Definition of communication
Message: Information and meaning exchanged during communication
Encoding: Process by which people select, imbed messages in signals, and send signals to others
Signals: Specific verbal language and nonverbal behaviors that are encoded when message sent
Channels: Sensory modalities by which signals sent and messages retrieved
Decoding: Process by which people receives signal from encoder and translates those signals to meaningful messages

33. Intercultural Communication
Unlike intra-cultural communication where message senders and receivers share the same ground rules, intercultural communication is associated with a host of additional social and psychological issues.

34. Uncertainty
To start, there is uncertainty or ambiguity concerning the ground rules by which the interaction should occur.
Given the pervasive influence of culture, it’s always difficult to figure out the rules being employed by two people from different cultures.
And this uncertainty in inherent in verbal as well as nonverbal communication, in both coding and decoding modes.

35. Uncertainty (cont.)
How can we package messages into precise words to convey our thoughts as accurately as possible and how can we interpret the sender’s messages as intended? 
Uncertainty can easily mount to the point of utter miscommunication. Hence, uncertainty reduction is the initial major goal of intercultural communication. 
Unless uncertainty is reduced, it’s impossible for senders and receivers to begin processing the intended message content.

36. Conflict
Once we engage in intercultural communication, some conflict and misunderstanding is inevitable. 
Conflict arises when people’s behavior does not confirm to our expectations.  
We tend to interpret such behaviors as
transgressions against our values.
Of course, uncertainty can contribute to this conflict.

37. Context
As we have said earlier, context has to do primarily with how communication takes place when cultures vary in context orientation. Here are several possible combinations.
1.       High Context with High Context
2.       Low Context with High Context
3.       Low Context with Low Context

38. Context (cont.)
But the “context of intercultural communication” also includes several other dimensions of cultural variability:
Individualism-collectivism,
Power Distance,
Uncertainty Avoidance, and
Masculinity-femininity

39. CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

40. Nonverbal behaviors: all behaviors that occur during communication that do not include verbal language
Nonverbal channels are more important in understanding meaning and emotional states of speakers than verbal language
Important to be more attentive to nonverbal cues that occur in communication

41. The Types of Nonverbal Behaviors
Culture and Gestures
The American A-OK sign is an obscene gestures in may cultures of Europe
Culture and Gaze
Contact cultures engage in more gazing and more direct orientation when interacting with others
Culture and Interpersonal Space
Arabs and Latin Americans interact with others at closer distance than Americans

42. The Functions of Nonverbal Behaviors
serve as emblems, speech illustrators, conversation regulators, and convey emotions

43. INTRACULTURAL AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

44. Cultural Influences on Encoding
Cultures differ in how nonverbal behavior is used in communication
Cultural Influences on Decoding
Cultures influences decoding process through ethnocentrism, cultural filters, emotions, value judgments, stereotypes and expectations
Decoding rules

45. Intracultural communication
Communication between people of the same cultural background
Interactants share same ground rules; they encode and decode using the same cultural codes
Can be negative because of expectations created by cultural filters and ethnocentrism

46. Intercultural communication
Communication between people of the different cultural background
Interactants do not share same ground rules; they encode and decode using different cultural codes
Can lead to
Uncertainty and ambiguity
Conflict

47. Barriers to Effective Intercultural communication
Assumptions of similarities
Language differences
Nonverbal misinterpretations
Preconceptions and stereotypes
Tendency to evaluate
High anxiety or tension

48. Barriers to Intercultural Communication
Source: Barna, L. M. (1997). Stumbling blocks in intercultural communication. In L. Samovar and R. Porter (Eds.), Intercultural communication: A reader (pp ). Belmont CA: Wadsworth.

49. Barriers (cont.) 1. Assumptions of similarities
We need to keep in mind that communication is a uniquely human trait shaped by culture.
In fact, communication itself is a product of culture, and cultures vary in their assumptions of similarities.

50. Barriers (cont.) 2. Language differences
The use of words which may be highly effective at conveying meaning within a particular culture often communicate unintended meanings across cultures.
Add to this the nonverbal channel of communication and you have a recipe for conflict and misunderstandings.

51. Barriers (cont.) 3. Nonverbal misinterpretations
This is the single most frequent cause of breakdowns in the communication process across cultures.
4. Preconceptions and stereotypes
These are natural and inevitable psychological processes that have a strong influence on our perceptions and communications.

52. Barriers (cont.) 5. Tendency to evaluate
We make attributions about the behavior of others based on our own cultural values.
6. High anxiety or tension
While some degree of anxiety may be conducive to optimal performance, too much anxiety or stress can lead to dysfunctional thought processes and behaviors.

53. Improving Intercultural Communication
Mindfulness and uncertainty reduction
Mindfulness offsets uncertainty and anxiety
Uncertainty reduction leads to focus on the content of signals and messages
Face
Should be mindful of face (public appearance of person) in collectivist culture
Emotion Regulation
Controlling negative emotions aroused from conflict is important