1. CHEMISTRY 6/9/2016 4:30 AM1Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

2. Composition of Matter Matter - Everything in universe is composed of matter  Matter is anything that occupies space or has mass Mass – quantity of matter an object has Weight – pull of gravity on an object 6/9/2016 4:30 AM2Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

3. Elements Pure substances that cannot be broken down chemically into simpler kinds of matter More than 100 elements (92 naturally occurring) 6/9/2016 4:30 AM3Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

4. 90% of the mass of an organism is composed of 4 elements (oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen) Each element unique chemical symbol  Consists of 1-2 letters  First letter is always capitalized 6/9/2016 4:30 AM4Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

5. Atoms The simplest particle of an element that retains all the properties of that element Properties of atoms determine the structure and properties of the matter they compose Our understanding of the structure of atoms based on scientific models, not observation 6/9/2016 4:30 AM5Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

6. The Nucleus Central core Consists of positive charged protons and neutral neutrons Positively charged Contains most of the mass of the atom 6/9/2016 4:30 AM6Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

7. The Protons All atoms of a given element have the same number of protons Number of protons called the atomic number Number of protons balanced by an equal number of negatively charged electrons 6/9/2016 4:30 AM7Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

8. The Neutrons The number varies slightly among atoms of the same element Different number of neutrons produces isotopes of the same element 6/9/2016 4:30 AM8Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

9. Atomic Mass Protons & neutrons are found in the nucleus of an atom Protons and neutrons each have a mass of 1 amu (atomic mass unit) The atomic mass of an atom is found by adding the number of protons & neutrons in an atom 6/9/2016 4:30 AM9Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

10. The Electrons Negatively charged high energy particles with little or no mass Travel at very high speeds at various distances (energy levels) from the nucleus 6/9/2016 4:30 AM10Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

11.  Electrons in the same energy level are approximately the same distance from the nucleus  Outer energy levels have more energy than inner levels  Each level holds only a certain number of electrons 6/9/2016 4:30 AM11Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

12. Energy Levels Atoms have 7 energy levels The levels are K (closest to the nucleus), L, M, N, O, P, Q (furthest from the nucleus) The K level can only hold 2 electrons Levels L – Q can hold 8 electrons (octet rule) 6/9/2016 4:30 AM12Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

13. Periodic Table Elements are arranged by their atomic number on the Periodic Table The horizontal rows are called Periods & tell the number of energy levels Vertical groups are called Families & tell the outermost number of electrons 6/9/2016 4:30 AM13Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

14. 6/9/2016 4:30 AM14Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

15. Compounds Most elements do not exist by themselves Readily combine with other elements in a predictable fashion 6/9/2016 4:30 AM15Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

16. A compound is a pure substance made up of atoms of two or more elements  The proportion of atoms are always fixed Chemical formula shows the kind and proportion of atoms of each element that occurs in a particular compound 6/9/2016 4:30 AM16Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

17. Molecules are the simplest part of a substance that retains all of the properties of the substance and exists in a free state Some molecules are large and complex 6/9/2016 4:30 AM17Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

18. Chemical Formulas Subscript after a symbol tell the number of atoms of each element H 2 0 has 2 atoms of hydrogen & 1 atom of oxygen Coefficients before a formula tell the number of molecules 3O 2 represents 3 molecules of oxygen or (3x2) or 6 atoms of oxygen 6/9/2016 4:30 AM18Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

19. The physical and chemical properties of a compound differ from the physical and chemical properties of the individual elements that compose it 6/9/2016 4:30 AM19Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

20. The tendency of elements to combine and form compounds depends on the number and arrangement of electrons in their outermost energy level Atoms are most stable when their outer most energy level is filled 6/9/2016 4:30 AM20Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

21. Most atoms are not stable in their natural state Tend to react (combine) with other atoms in order to become more stable (undergo chemical reactions) In chemical reactions bonds are broken; atoms rearranged and new chemical bonds are formed that store energy 6/9/2016 4:30 AM21Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

22. Covalent Bonds Formed when two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons 6/9/2016 4:30 AM22Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

23. Ionic Bonds Some atoms become stable by losing or gaining electrons Atoms that lose electrons are called positive ions 6/9/2016 4:30 AM23Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

24. Atoms that gain electrons are called negative ions Because positive and negative electrical charges attract each other ionic bonds form 6/9/2016 4:30 AM24Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

25. Energy and Matter Energy  The ability to do work or cause change  Occurs in various forms  Can be converted to another form  Forms important to biological systems are chemical, thermal, electrical and mechanical energy  Free energy is the energy in a system that is available for work 6/9/2016 4:30 AM25Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

26. States of Matter Atoms are in constant motion The rate at which atoms or molecules in a substance move determines its state 6/9/2016 4:30 AM26Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

27.  Solid Molecules tightly linked together in a definite shape Vibrate in place Fixed volume and shape 6/9/2016 4:30 AM27Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

28.  Liquids Molecules not as tightly linked as a solid Maintain fixed volume Able to flow and conform to shape of container 6/9/2016 4:30 AM28Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

29.  Gas Molecules have little or no attraction to each other Fill the volume of the occupied container Move most rapidly To cause a substance to change state, thermal energy (heat) must be added to or removed from a substance 6/9/2016 4:30 AM29Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

30. Energy and Chemical Reactions Living things undergo thousands of chemical reactions as part of the life process 6/9/2016 4:30 AM30Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

31. Many are very complex involving multistep sequences called biochemical pathways Chemical equations represent chemical reactions Reactants are shown on the left side of the equation Products are shown on the right side 6/9/2016 4:30 AM31Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

32. The number of each kind of atom must be the same on either side of the arrow (equation must be balanced) Bonds may be broken or made forming new compounds 6/9/2016 4:30 AM32Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

33. Energy Transfer Much of the energy organisms need is provided by sugar (food) Undergoes a series of chemical reactions in which energy is released (cell respiration) The net release of free energy is called an exergonic (exothermic) reaction 6/9/2016 4:30 AM33Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

34. Reactions that involve a net absorption of free energy are called endergonic (endothermic) reactions Photosynthesis is an example Most reactions in living organisms are endergonic; therefore living organisms require a constant source of energy 6/9/2016 4:30 AM34Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

35. Most chemical reactions require energy to begin The amount of energy needed to start the reaction is called activation energy 6/9/2016 4:30 AM35Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

36. Certain chemical substances (catalysts) reduce the amount of activation energy required Biological catalysts are called enzymes 6/9/2016 4:30 AM36Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

37. Enzymes are an important class of catalysts in living organisms  Mostly protein  Thousands of different kinds  Each specific for a different chemical reaction 6/9/2016 4:30 AM37Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

38. Enzyme Structure Enzymes work on substances called substrates Substrates must fit into a place on an enzyme called the active site Enzymes are reusable! 6/9/2016 4:30 AM38Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

39. Reduction-Oxidation Reactions Many of the chemical reactions that help transfer energy in living organisms involve the transfer of electrons (reduction-oxidation = redox reactions) 6/9/2016 4:30 AM39Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

40. Oxidation reaction – reactant loses electron(s) becoming more positive 6/9/2016 4:30 AM40Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

41. Reduction reaction – reactant gains electron(s) becoming more negative 6/9/2016 4:30 AM41Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

42. Solutions 6/9/2016 4:30 AM42Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

43. Solutions A solution is a mixture in which 2 or more substances are uniformly distributed in another substance 6/9/2016 4:30 AM43Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

44. Solute is the substance dissolved in the solution  Particles may be ions, atoms, or molecules Solvent is the substance in which the solute is dissolved Water is the universal solvent 6/9/2016 4:30 AM44Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

45. Solutions can be composed of varying proportions of a given solute in a given solvent --- vary in concentration (measurement of the amount of solute) A saturated solution is one in which no more solute can be dissolved Aqueous solution (water) are universally important to living things 6/9/2016 4:30 AM45Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

46. Dissociation of water  Breaking apart of the water molecule into two ions of opposite charge (due to strong attraction of oxygen atom of one molecule for H atom of another water molecule)  H 2 O  H + (hydrogen ion) + OH - (hydroxide ion)  H + + H 2 O  H 3 O (hydronium ion) 6/9/2016 4:30 AM46Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

47. Acids and Bases One of the most important aspects of a living system is the degree of acidity or alkalinity 6/9/2016 4:30 AM47Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

48. Acids Number of hydronium ions in solutions is greater than the number of hydroxide ions HCl  H + + Cl - 6/9/2016 4:30 AM48Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

49. Bases Number of hydroxide ions in solution is greater than the number of hydronium ions NaOH  Na + + OH - 6/9/2016 4:30 AM49Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

50. pH Scale logarithmic scale for comparing the relative concentrations of hydronium ions and hydroxide ions in a solution ranges from 0 to 14  Each pH is 10X stronger than next  e.g. ph 1 is 10 times stronger than ph 2 6/9/2016 4:30 AM50Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

51. the lower the pH the stronger the acid the higher the pH the stronger the base pH 7.0 is neutral 6/9/2016 4:30 AM51Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

52. Buffers Control of pH is very important Most enzymes function only within a very narrow pH Control is accomplished with buffers made by the body Buffers keep a neutral pH (pH 7) 6/9/2016 4:30 AM52Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

53. Buffers neutralize small amounts of either an acid or base added to a solution Complex buffering systems maintain the pH values of your body’s many fluids at normal and safe levels 6/9/2016 4:30 AM53Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

54. ORGANIC COMPOUNDS 6/9/2016 4:30 AMColey - Chemistry Of Living Things54

55. Uses of Organic Molecules Americans consume an average of 140 pounds of sugar per person per year Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things55 Cellulose, found in plant cell walls, is the most abundant organic compound on Earth 6/9/2016 4:30 AM

56. Uses of Organic Molecules A typical cell in your body has about 2 meters of DNA Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things56 A typical cow produces over 200 pounds of methane gas each year 6/9/2016 4:30 AM

57. Water About 60-90 percent of an organism is water Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things57 Water is used in most reactions in the body Water is called the universal solvent 6/9/2016 4:30 AM

58. Water Properties Polarity Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things58 Cohesiveness Adhesiveness Surface Tension 6/9/2016 4:30 AM

59. Carbon-based Molecules Although a cell is mostly water, the rest of the cell consists mostly of carbon-based molecules Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things59 Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds 6/9/2016 4:30 AM

60. Carbon is a Versatile Atom It has four electrons in an outer shell that holds eight Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things60 Carbon can share its electrons with other atoms to form up to four covalent bonds 6/9/2016 4:30 AM

61. Hydrocarbons The simplest carbon compounds … Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things61 Contain only carbon & hydrogen atoms 6/9/2016 4:30 AM

62. Carbon can use its bonds to:: Attach to other carbons Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things62 Form an endless diversity of carbon skeletons 6/9/2016 4:30 AM

63. Large Hydrocarbons: Are the main molecules in the gasoline we burn in our cars Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things63 The hydrocarbons of fat molecules provide energy for our bodies 6/9/2016 4:30 AM

64. Shape of Organic Molecules Each type of organic molecule has a unique three- dimensional shape Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things64 The shape determines its function in an organism 6/9/2016 4:30 AM

65. Functional Groups are: Groups of atoms that give properties to the compounds to which they attach Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things65 Gained Electrons Lost Electrons 6/9/2016 4:30 AM

66. Common Functional Groups Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things666/9/2016 4:30 AM

67. The Extraordinary Properties of Water 6/9/2016 4:30 AM67Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

68. Water three A water molecule (H 2 O), is made up of three atoms --- one oxygen and two hydrogen. H H O 6/9/2016 4:30 AM68Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

69. Water is Polar oxygen atom attracts more electrons In each water molecule, the oxygen atom attracts more than its "fair share" of electrons oxygennegative The oxygen end “acts” negative hydrogenpositive The hydrogen end “acts” positive POLAR Causes the water to be POLAR neutral Zero Net Charge However, Water is neutral (equal number of e- and p+) --- Zero Net Charge 6/9/2016 4:30 AM69Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

70. Hydrogen Bonds Exist Between Water Molecules Formed between a highly Electronegative atom of a polar molecule and a Hydrogen Formed between a highly Electronegative atom of a polar molecule and a Hydrogen One hydrogen bond is weak, but many hydrogen bonds are strong One hydrogen bond is weak, but many hydrogen bonds are strong 6/9/2016 4:30 AM70Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

71. Interaction Between Water Molecules Negative Oxygen end of one water molecule is attracted to the Positive Hydrogen end of another water molecule to form a HYDROGEN BOND 6/9/2016 4:30 AM71Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

72. What are the Properties of Water? 6/9/2016 4:30 AM72Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

73. Properties of Water At sea level, pure water boils at 100 °C and freezes at 0 °C. At sea level, pure water boils at 100 °C and freezes at 0 °C. The boiling temperature of water decreases at higher elevations (lower atmospheric pressure). The boiling temperature of water decreases at higher elevations (lower atmospheric pressure). For this reason, an egg will take longer to boil at higher altitudes For this reason, an egg will take longer to boil at higher altitudes 6/9/2016 4:30 AM73Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

74. Properties of Water Cohesion Cohesion 6/9/2016 4:30 AM74Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

75. Properties of Water Cohesion Cohesion Adhesion Adhesion 6/9/2016 4:30 AM75Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

76. Properties of Water Cohesion Cohesion Adhesion Adhesion High Specific Heat High Specific Heat 6/9/2016 4:30 AM76Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

77. Properties of Water Cohesion Cohesion Adhesion Adhesion High Specific Heat High Specific Heat High Heat of Vaporization High Heat of Vaporization 6/9/2016 4:30 AM77Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

78. Properties of Water Cohesion Cohesion Adhesion Adhesion High Specific Heat High Specific Heat High Heat of Vaporization High Heat of Vaporization Less Dense as a Solid Less Dense as a Solid 6/9/2016 4:30 AM78Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

79. Cohesion Attraction between particles of the same substance (why water is attracted to itself) Attraction between particles of the same substance ( why water is attracted to itself) Results in Surface tension (a measure of the strength of water’s surface) Results in Surface tension (a measure of the strength of water’s surface) Produces a surface film on water that allows insects to walk on the surface of water Produces a surface film on water that allows insects to walk on the surface of water 6/9/2016 4:30 AM79Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

80. Cohesion … Helps insects walk across water 6/9/2016 4:30 AM80Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

81. Adhesion Attraction between two different substances. Attraction between two different substances. Water will make hydrogen bonds with other surfaces such as glass, soil, plant tissues, and cotton. Water will make hydrogen bonds with other surfaces such as glass, soil, plant tissues, and cotton. Capillary action-water molecules will “tow” each other along when in a thin glass tube. Capillary action-water molecules will “tow” each other along when in a thin glass tube. Example: transpiration process which plants and trees remove water from the soil, and paper towels soak up water. Example: transpiration process which plants and trees remove water from the soil, and paper towels soak up water. 6/9/2016 4:30 AM81Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

82. Adhesion Causes Capillary Action Which gives water the ability to “climb” structures 6/9/2016 4:30 AM82Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

83. Adhesion Also Causes Water to … Form spheres & hold onto plant leaves Attach to a silken spider web 6/9/2016 4:30 AM83Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

84. High Specific Heat Amount of heat needed to raise or lower 1g of a substance 1° C. Amount of heat needed to raise or lower 1g of a substance 1° C. Water resists temperature change, both for heating and cooling. Water resists temperature change, both for heating and cooling. Water can absorb or release large amounts of heat energy with little change in actual temperature. Water can absorb or release large amounts of heat energy with little change in actual temperature. 6/9/2016 4:30 AM84Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

85. High Heat of Vaporization Amount of energy to convert 1g or a substance from a liquid to a gas Amount of energy to convert 1g or a substance from a liquid to a gas In order for water to evaporate, hydrogen bonds must be broken. In order for water to evaporate, hydrogen bonds must be broken. As water evaporates, it removes a lot of heat with it. As water evaporates, it removes a lot of heat with it. 6/9/2016 4:30 AM85Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

86. High Heat of Vaporization 540 cal/g. Water's heat of vaporization is 540 cal/g. In order for water to evaporate, each gram must GAIN 540 calories (temperature doesn’t change --- 100 o C). In order for water to evaporate, each gram must GAIN 540 calories (temperature doesn’t change --- 100 o C). As water evaporates, it removes a lot of heat with it (cooling effect). As water evaporates, it removes a lot of heat with it (cooling effect). 6/9/2016 4:30 AM86Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

87. Water vapor Water vapor forms a kind of global ‘‘blanket” which helps to keep the Earth warm. Heat radiated from the sun Heat radiated from the sun warmed surface of the earth is absorbed and held by the vapor by the vapor. 6/9/2016 4:30 AM87Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

88. Water is Less Dense as a Solid Ice is less dense Ice is less dense as a solid than as a liquid (ice floats) hydrogen bonds constantly being broken and reformed. Liquid water has hydrogen bonds that are constantly being broken and reformed. Frozen water crystal-like lattice Frozen water forms a crystal-like lattice whereby molecules are set at fixed distances. 6/9/2016 4:30 AM88Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

89. Water is Less Dense as a Solid Which is ice and which is water?Which is ice and which is water? 6/9/2016 4:30 AM89Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things

90. Water is Less Dense as a Solid WaterIce 6/9/2016 4:30 AM90Coley - Chemistry Of Living Things