1. PRICING

2. DEFINITION Price – is the exchange value of goods and service always expressed in the terms of money. Price may be defined as a value of product attributes expressed in monetary terms which the consumer pays in exchange of products and services. According to W.J. Stanton, “ Price is the amount of money which is needed to acquire a product.” Pricing- refers to process of setting / fixing/ determining the price of products and services.

3. CHARACTERISTICS OF PRICE Price is an exchange value of a product or service expressed in monetary terms. Price is an important element of 7 P’s of marketing mix. Price offers a link between company and consumer. Price is an important instrument by which company achieve its profit, sales, revenue etc.

4. OBJECTIVES OF PRICING / PRICE To maximize profits. To maximize sales and marketing. To maximize revenue. To differentiate between the products / value. To capture the market share. To target written on investment. To meet the competition.

5. FACTORS INFLUENCING OR AFFECTING PRICING POLICIES AND DECISIONS INTERNAL FACTORS Objectives of business. Marketing Cost of the production Production differentiation. Types of product. Channels of distribution. EXTERNAL FACTORS Demand Competition Suppliers Consumer profile Economic Government policies, rules and regulations Conflicting interest between manufacturer

6. INTERNAL FACTORS Marketing Mix. Competition policy Image. Promotional mix. Product substitution Capacity utilization ratio EXTERNAL FACTORS and intermediates. Nature of price sensitivity. Active entry of non- business groups and price decision.

7. PRICING STRATEGIES AND POLICIES Skim the cream pricing / skimming pricing. Market penetration. Product line pricing Geographical pricing (X Factory, Zonal pricing, Uniform pricing) Prestige pricing Psychological pricing Fixed pricing Bargaining pricing Prestige pricing Customary pricing

8. Customary Pricing Discriminatory Pricing Price Lining Perceived- Value Pricing Sealed Bid Pricing Tender Pricing Going Rate Pricing Leadership Pricing Non- Price Competition Pricing Resale Price Maintenance Policy Affordability – Based Pricing Discount and allowance Pricing Loss Leader Pricing Transfer Pricing

9. PRICING METHODS Cost Based Pricing Method: the cost of production / cost of manufacturing a product is the key factor in price determination. The various cost based pricing are: Mark – up Pricing Full Cost Pricing Target Rate of Return Pricing Marginal Cost Break – even Pricing

10. Market –Oriented Pricing Method – gives you proper weight age to need of customers and different elements of external macro environment. These methods are discussed here under: Pricing above the Market Pricing below the Market Pricing to meet Competition

11. Role and importance of pricing Profitability depends on pricing Price is determinant of buying decision Price influences customer perception Price is a weapon to fight competition Price is an important part of sales and marketing promotion

12. Pricing Strategies

14. Penetration Pricing

15. Price set to ‘penetrate the market’ ‘Low’ price to secure high volumes Typical in mass market products – chocolate bars, food stuffs, household goods, etc. Suitable for products with long anticipated life cycles May be useful if launching into a new market

16. Market Skimming

17. High price, Low volumes Skim the profit from the market Suitable for products that have short life cycles or which will face competition at some point in the future (e.g. after a patent runs out) Examples include: Playstation, jewellery, digital technology, new DVDs, etc. Many are predicting a firesale in laptops as supply exceeds demand. Copyright: iStock.com

18. Value Pricing

19. Price set in accordance with customer perceptions about the value of the product/service Examples include status products/exclusive products Companies may be able to set prices according to perceived value. Copyright: iStock.com

20. Loss Leader

21. Goods/services deliberately sold below cost to encourage sales elsewhere Typical in supermarkets, e.g. at Christmas, selling bottles of gin at £3 in the hope that people will be attracted to the store and buy other things Purchases of other items more than covers ‘loss’ on item sold e.g. ‘Free’ mobile phone when taking on contract package

22. Psychological Pricing

23. Used to play on consumer perceptions Classic example - £9.99 instead of £10.99! Links with value pricing – high value goods priced according to what consumers THINK should be the price

24. Going Rate (Price Leadership)

25. In case of price leader, rivals have difficulty in competing on price – too high and they lose market share, too low and the price leader would match price and force smaller rival out of market May follow pricing leads of rivals especially where those rivals have a clear dominance of market share Where competition is limited, ‘going rate’ pricing may be applicable – banks, petrol, supermarkets, electrical goods – find very similar prices in all outlets

26. Tender Pricing

27. Many contracts awarded on a tender basis Firm (or firms) submit their price for carrying out the work Purchaser then chooses which represents best value Mostly done in secret

28. Price Discrimination

29. Charging a different price for the same good/service in different markets Requires each market to be impenetrable Requires different price elasticity of demand in each market Prices for rail travel differ for the same journey at different times of the day Copyright: iStock.com

30. Destroyer Pricing/Predatory Pricing

31. Destroyer/Predatory Pricing Deliberate price cutting or offer of ‘free gifts/products’ to force rivals (normally smaller and weaker) out of business or prevent new entrants Anti-competitive and illegal if it can be proved

32. Absorption/Full Cost Pricing

33. Full Cost Pricing – attempting to set price to cover both fixed and variable costs Absorption Cost Pricing – Price set to ‘absorb’ some of the fixed costs of production

34. Marginal Cost Pricing

35. Marginal cost – the cost of producing ONE extra or ONE fewer item of production MC pricing – allows flexibility Particularly relevant in transport where fixed costs may be relatively high Allows variable pricing structure – e.g. on a flight from London to New York – providing the cost of the extra passenger is covered, the price could be varied a good deal to attract customers and fill the aircraft

36. Marginal Cost Pricing Example: Aircraft flying from Bristol to Edinburgh – Total Cost (including normal profit) = £15,000 of which £13,000 is fixed cost* Number of seats = 160, average price = £93.75 MC of each passenger = 2000/160 = £12.50 If flight not full, better to offer passengers chance of flying at £12.50 and fill the seat than not fill it at all! *All figures are estimates only

37. Contribution Pricing

38. Contribution = Selling Price – Variable (direct costs) Prices set to ensure coverage of variable costs and a ‘contribution’ to the fixed costs Similar in principle to marginal cost pricing Break-even analysis might be useful in such circumstances

39. Target Pricing

40. Setting price to ‘target’ a specified profit level Estimates of the cost and potential revenue at different prices, and thus the break-even have to be made, to determine the mark-up Mark-up = Profit/Cost x 100

41. Cost-Plus Pricing

42. Calculation of the average cost (AC) plus a mark up AC = Total Cost/Output

43. Influence of Elasticity

44. Any pricing decision must be mindful of the impact of price elasticity The degree of price elasticity impacts on the level of sales and hence revenue Elasticity focuses on proportionate (percentage) changes PED = % Change in Quantity demanded/% Change in Price

45. Influence of Elasticity Price Inelastic: % change in Q < % change in P e.g. a 5% increase in price would be met by a fall in sales of something less than 5% Revenue would rise A 7% reduction in price would lead to a rise in sales of something less than 7% Revenue would fall

46. Influence of Elasticity Price Elastic: % change in quantity demanded > % change in price e.g. A 4% rise in price would lead to sales falling by something more than 4% Revenue would fall A 9% fall in price would lead to a rise in sales of something more than 9% Revenue would rise