1. THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

2. Why learn about developmental theories ? Guides our thinking about how and what development occurs; describe/define concepts, and relations among concepts Enables prediction of behavior Provides a scientific basis or evidence creating a foundation for understanding/explaining events..for helping us know how to promote development, and prevent atypical or delayed development

3. Different theories take various positions regarding the controversies. – The Nature – Nurture Controversy – The Continuity – Discontinuity Controversy – The Active – Passive Controversy Some developmental theories are broad (like ecological models) while others are more specific (like Piaget’s model of cognitive development)

4. Theories of Development Learning Perspectives o Behaviorism (J. Watson); o Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura) Psychoanalytic Perspectives o Psychoanalytic approach; Psychosexual Development (S. Freud) o Psychosocial Development ( E. Erikson) Cognitive Theories o Cognitive Developmental Theory (Piaget) o Information Processing Theory (Brigham and others)

5. Theories of Development continued Biological Perspective o Ethology, o Behavioral genetics, evolution Ecological Perspective (Bronfenbrenner) o Development occurs within a number of embedded systems (micro-, meso-, exo-, macro, and chrono- systems), and as a result of two-way interactions between the child and contexts (environments, caregivers etc.) Sociocultural Perspective (Vygotsky) o Emphasizes the social nature of humans, human diversity, and sociocultural influences, along with learning theories

6. Learning Perspectives o Includes Behaviorism and Social Cognitive Theory o Children LEARN how to do things; Emphasizes NATURE; children begin like a blank slate and must be taught o Children learn mostly by association (positive and negative consequences), and by watching others (role modeling) o Behaviorism (Pavlov, Watson, Skinner) Classical conditioning: through association Operant conditioning: through reinforcement

7. Figure 1.1 Classical Conditioning

9. Operant Conditioning Learn to do something because of its effects or reinforcement- a stimulus that increases the frequency of the behavior it follows Positive reinforcer (good thing happens) or a negative reinforcer (a bad thing is removed) **both increase the frequency of desired behavior Punishment (a bad thing happens); decreases the frequency of an undesirable behavior WHAT DO YOU THINK ABOUT….Spanking?;“Time-out”; Parents paying their kids a dollar every time they score a goal?? Taking away videogames when kids get a C in school? Shaping: using small steps with reinforcement; then fading the reinforcements Behaviorists believe that children are PASSIVE LEARNERS ** MOST EFFECTIVE TO REWARD A CHILD FOR GOOD BEHAVIOR

10. Social Cognitive Theory ( Bandura) Learning alters child’s mental representation of the environment and influences belief in ability to change the environment Acquire basic “know-how” through observational learning; Latent learning often occurs Child is an active learner, and learning requires cognitive thought; Learning occurs as long as the child is paying attention!! OVERALL, learning theories underestimate the importance of biological-maturation factors, and view learning as too mechanical BUT, They help to describe, explain, predict, and influence aspects of children’s behavior AND the principles are routinely applied in education, parenting and clinical work (psychology)

11. Psychoanalytic Perspective Psychosexual Development (S. Freud); Psychosocial Development (E. Erikson) View children(and adults) as experiencing conflict with Internal drive and urges; human Internalize ‘external’ demands and rules Stage theories with distinct periods of development Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development (1856-1939) o Focused on social-emotional aspects o Much of the human mind lies beneath consciousness o 3 parts of personality: id (unconscious biological drives/instincts); ego (conscious sense of self) and superego (norms, morality)

12. Freud’s 5 Psychosexual Stages Oral (0-1yrs) ; gratification largely oral Anal (1-3yrs); gratification through control and elimination of the body’s waste) Phallic (3-6 yrs); gratification through masturbation Latency (6-12yrs); sexual feelings remain unconsciousness; focus on same sex peers, schoolwork etc. Genital (13-18) sexual impulses reappear; relations with opposite sex

13. Comments on Freud’s Theory, and contributions to today’s understanding Comprehensive theory of childhood that influenced work on attachment, gender roles and abnormal development BUT limited because his theory was largely based on patients (women) who were emotionally troubled, with little empirical data; AND too much emphasis on sexuality, instincts and unconscious motives rather than motivations driven by interests, and social relationships

14. Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development o Also focused on psychological and emotional traits; expanded Freud’s theory; Included 8 rather than 5 stages, and extended through adulthood o Belief that successful resolution of life crises bolsters sense of identity; that early experiences greatly affects future development o Focuses on the development of self-identity, and conscious choice o Each stage has a specific developmental task; completion largely depends upon social relationships

16. The Cognitive Perspective: Piaget, Information Processing Focuses on children’s mental processes; How children perceive and mentally represent the world, think, apply logic, learning style, solve problems J. Piaget (1896–1980):Cognitive-developmental theory - development is based on children’s interactions with their environments; he linked mental processes that can’t be directly observed to child behavior using five main concepts - Piaget underestimated children’s abilities by age; also cognitive growth is probably more gradual rather than having very distinct stages

17. Piaget’s 5 Basic Concepts Scheme o Pattern of action involved in acquiring or organizing knowledge Adaptation o Interaction between child and the environment Assimilation o Responding to new object or event according to existing schemes Accommodation o Adjusting scheme to a new object or event Equilibration o Process of restoring equilibrium after a period of accommodation

18. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development o Sensorimotor (0-2): reflexive; lacks language and mental representation of objects o Preoperational (2-7): has mental representation of objects; language; egocentric; can’t focus on more than one property at once o Concrete Operational (7-12); develops logical mental actions; adopts views of others; understands relational concepts o Formal Operational (12-adulthood); mature, adult thought emerges; abstract thought; weighs possibilities, tests hypothesis

19. Information-Processing Theory Influenced by the concepts of computer science o Process of encoding information (input) o Storage of information (long-term memory) o Retrieval of information (short-term memory) o Manipulation of information to solve problems (output) o Software (mental processes) o Hardware (brain) Consider “limitations” of child o Short-term memory o Ability to multi-task Applications in education; breaking tasks up into steps; tips to memorize and retrieve information

20. The Biological Perspective Ethology and Evolution : instinct; inborn qualities, pre- wired or preprogrammed; perhaps infant-caregiver bonding/attachment Emphasizes Nature; genetic predisposition Biologically determined sensitive or critical periods Human behavior is just not as mechanical or pre- programmed as lower animals; predictability with physical development like height and weight; development of the nervous system, heredity factors, hormonal influences of development What developmental traits might be driven by instinct? Or are genetically pre-determined?

21. The Ecological Perspective Relations between organisms and the environments in which in live; Explains development through interactions between children and context/setting/environment Focuses on Nurture ; and interaction of nature and nurture; Children are active participants in their development U. Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005) o Emphasized reciprocal nature of interactions between parent and child (bidirectional) o Five Embedded Systems Microsystem: Child direct interactions with significant others Mesosystem: Home school, neighborhood settings Exosystem: Youth sport organizations, health care systems, school board Macrosystem: Attitudes, beliefs, cultural norms/expectations, lifestyle Chronosystem: Changes that occur over time o Helps focus attention on the influence of changing systems;

22. Ecological Model of Development

23. The Sociocultural Perspective View children as social beings who are influenced by the cultures in which they live Lev Vygotsky’s (1896–1934) sociocultural theory; considers the “ zone of proximal development ” Scaffolding; types of assistance, cueing; use of self-talk/private speech; building on prior skills/knowledge Emphasizes nurture mostly; children’s development is continuous (not stage specific) and children are viewed as both passive and active (but mostly active)

24. Sociocultural Perspective and Human Diversity Awareness of diversity among children o Ethnic Groups Understanding of children’s family values and cultural expectations o Gender Understanding of gender-role expectations o Socio-economic Status Associated with opportunity o Emphasizes the influence of socioeconomic status, and other sociocultural factors on a child’s development; emphasizes nurture