1. Identifying Premises and Conclusions How to diagram a complex argument.

2. Overview Position – The overall statement. Position – The overall statement. Premise - A statement offered to support a position Premise - A statement offered to support a position Conclusion – the statement that the premises support, what they lead the thinker to Conclusion – the statement that the premises support, what they lead the thinker to

3. Why this matters A mark of advanced comprehension and educational achievement is the ability to analyze complex passages and ideas. A mark of advanced comprehension and educational achievement is the ability to analyze complex passages and ideas. Diagramming complex argumentative passages should sharpen your paraphrasing and analytical skills. Diagramming complex argumentative passages should sharpen your paraphrasing and analytical skills.

4. Start by breaking it down or Paraphrasing 1.Use premise- and conclusion-indicators 2.Clearly answer the question-and-answer test 3.Use common argument forms 4.Add important hidden argument-parts, including contextual clues 5.Order propositions in an intuitive manner 6.Simplify the language of the original text 7.Eliminate irrelevant propositions 8.Provide uniformity of terms and language 9.Identify independent and dependent premises 10.Identify arguments within arguments (intermediate conclusions)

5. Premise and Conclusion Indicators (premise) …. Shows that … (conclusion) (premise) …. Shows that … (conclusion) (premise) … indicates that … (conclusion) (premise) … indicates that … (conclusion) (premise) … proves that … (conclusion) (premise) … proves that … (conclusion) (premise)… entails that … (conclusion) (premise)… entails that … (conclusion)

6. Conclusion Indicators So So Thus Thus Therefore Therefore Hence Hence We can conclude that We can conclude that consequently consequently

7. Conclusion Premise Indicators (conclusion).. Is shown by … (premise) (conclusion).. Is shown by … (premise) (conclusion) … is established by …(premise) (conclusion) … is established by …(premise) They can go BACKWARDS! They can go BACKWARDS!

8. Try this one The Pentagon must be in Washington D.C., because it is either in Washington D.C. or in Baltimore, Maryland. But my brother, who works in the Pentagon, says he has never been in Baltimore. The Pentagon must be in Washington D.C., because it is either in Washington D.C. or in Baltimore, Maryland. But my brother, who works in the Pentagon, says he has never been in Baltimore.

9. Either_____(a)_____or_____(b)_______ Either_____(a)_____or_____(b)_______ Not A Not A Therefore (3 dots) Therefore (3 dots) B –Start with position –Premises –conclusion

10. A little tougher I f Americans continue to reject candidates for public office who propose significant tax increases, then the needed improvements to our infrastructure, including our educational system, will be impossible. If the needed improvements to our infrastructure will be impossible, then we will be unable to retain our economic competiveness with Europe and Japan. Consequently we will be unable to retain our economic competiveness with Europe and Japan, because Americans will continue to reject candidates for public office who propose significant tax increases. I f Americans continue to reject candidates for public office who propose significant tax increases, then the needed improvements to our infrastructure, including our educational system, will be impossible. If the needed improvements to our infrastructure will be impossible, then we will be unable to retain our economic competiveness with Europe and Japan. Consequently we will be unable to retain our economic competiveness with Europe and Japan, because Americans will continue to reject candidates for public office who propose significant tax increases.

11. If_____(a)_____then_____(b)_______ If_____(a)_____then_____(b)_______ A Therefore (3 dots) Therefore (3 dots) B

12. Arguments within arguments Often the premises that justify the main conclusion of a passage are controversial, and thus need their own justification. Often the premises that justify the main conclusion of a passage are controversial, and thus need their own justification. –Humans are inherently selfish. Socialism ignores this basic fact of human nature, and thus leads to economic inefficiency and civil unrest. Obviously, additional arguments can provide this justification: Obviously, additional arguments can provide this justification: –Few individuals would voluntarily offer their money and belongings to aid those they do not know. This is especially true of people with limited means. Since our prehistoric ancestors lived more modestly than many of the poorest people of today, it appears that selfishness is part and parcel of human nature.

13. A more complex version Humans are inherently selfish. Socialism ignores this basic fact of human nature, and thus leads to economic inefficiency and civil unrest. Humans are inherently selfish. Socialism ignores this basic fact of human nature, and thus leads to economic inefficiency and civil unrest. Few individuals would voluntarily offer their money and belongings to aid those they do not know. This is especially true of people with limited means. Since our prehistoric ancestors lived more modestly than many of the poorest people of today, it appears that selfishness is part and parcel of human nature. Few individuals would voluntarily offer their money and belongings to aid those they do not know. This is especially true of people with limited means. Since our prehistoric ancestors lived more modestly than many of the poorest people of today, it appears that selfishness is part and parcel of human nature. Socialism is the doctrine that resources should be distributed according to need. It does not require the people possessing the resources to know the people who need them, and such a requirement is practically impossible for any significant population. As a result it takes for granted that people can overcome their selfish impulses. Socialism is the doctrine that resources should be distributed according to need. It does not require the people possessing the resources to know the people who need them, and such a requirement is practically impossible for any significant population. As a result it takes for granted that people can overcome their selfish impulses. Any political-economic system that ignores human nature is bound to make people unhappy. Unhappy citizens tend to cause political unrest. Any political-economic system that ignores human nature is bound to make people unhappy. Unhappy citizens tend to cause political unrest. Furthermore, if a person’s earnings are going to be given to someone else, as they would be in socialism, then there will be no incentive for her to work her hardest. As a result, socialism causes economic inefficiency. Furthermore, if a person’s earnings are going to be given to someone else, as they would be in socialism, then there will be no incentive for her to work her hardest. As a result, socialism causes economic inefficiency.

14. Exercise 2 Democratic laws generally tend to promote the welfare of the greatest possible number; for they emanate from the majority of citizens, who are subject to error, but how cannot have an interest opposed to their own advantage. The laws of an aristocracy tend, on the contrary, to concentrate the wealth and power in the hands of the minority. It may therefore be asserted, as a general proposition, that the purpose of a democracy in its legislation is more useful to humanity than that of an aristocracy. Democratic laws generally tend to promote the welfare of the greatest possible number; for they emanate from the majority of citizens, who are subject to error, but how cannot have an interest opposed to their own advantage. The laws of an aristocracy tend, on the contrary, to concentrate the wealth and power in the hands of the minority. It may therefore be asserted, as a general proposition, that the purpose of a democracy in its legislation is more useful to humanity than that of an aristocracy.

15. Paraphrase of Exercise 2 Argument A 1. Democratic laws are established by a majority of the citizens. 2. If a law is established by the majority of the citizens, then it cannot be opposed to their own advantage. 3.  Democratic laws cannot be opposed to the majority’s advantage. Argument B 4. Aristocratic laws are established by a minority. 5. If a law is established by a minority of the citizens, then it can be opposed to their own advantage. 6.  Aristocratic laws can be opposed to the majority’s advantage. Argument C 3, 6 7. If something cannot be opposed to the majority’s advantage, it is more useful to humanity than something that can be opposed to the majority’s advantage. 8.  Democratic laws are more useful to humanity than aristocratic laws.

16. Exercise 4 Nothing is demonstrable unless the contrary implies a contradiction. Nothing that is distinctly conceivable implies a contradiction. Whatever we conceive as existent, we can also conceive as nonexistent. There is no being, therefore, whose non-existence implies a contradiction. Consequently, there is no being whose existence is demonstrable. Nothing is demonstrable unless the contrary implies a contradiction. Nothing that is distinctly conceivable implies a contradiction. Whatever we conceive as existent, we can also conceive as nonexistent. There is no being, therefore, whose non-existence implies a contradiction. Consequently, there is no being whose existence is demonstrable.

17. Paraphrase of Exercise 4 Argument A 1. If something is conceivable, then its contrary does not imply a contradiction. 2. If something’s existence is conceivable, then its non- existence is also conceivable. 3.  If something exists, then its contrary does not imply a contradiction. Argument B 3 4. If something is demonstrable, then its contrary implies a contradiction. 5.  If something exists, then its existence is not demonstrable.

18. Exercise 1 (additional) A question arises: whether it is better [for a prince] to be loved than feared or feared than loved. One should wish to be both, but because it is difficult to unite them in one person, it is much safer to be feared than loved, when of the two, one must be dispensed with. Because this is to be asserted in general of men, that they are ungrateful, fickle, false, cowards, covetous…and the prince who, relying entirely on their promises, has neglected other precautions, is ruined, because friendships that are obtained by payments may indeed be earned but they are not secured, and in time of need cannot be relied upon. Men have less scruple in offending one who is beloved than one who is feared, for love is preserved by the link of obligation which, owing to the baseness of men, is broken at every opportunity for their advantage; but fear preserves you by a dread of punishment which never fails. A question arises: whether it is better [for a prince] to be loved than feared or feared than loved. One should wish to be both, but because it is difficult to unite them in one person, it is much safer to be feared than loved, when of the two, one must be dispensed with. Because this is to be asserted in general of men, that they are ungrateful, fickle, false, cowards, covetous…and the prince who, relying entirely on their promises, has neglected other precautions, is ruined, because friendships that are obtained by payments may indeed be earned but they are not secured, and in time of need cannot be relied upon. Men have less scruple in offending one who is beloved than one who is feared, for love is preserved by the link of obligation which, owing to the baseness of men, is broken at every opportunity for their advantage; but fear preserves you by a dread of punishment which never fails.

19. Paraphrase of Exercise 1 Argument A 1. Humans are base creatures. 2. Base creatures are more likely to break promises made to a person they love than to a person they fear. 3. If people are likely to break promises with a prince, and he relies entirely on their promises, then he is ruined. 4.  A prince who is only loved and relies entirely on the promises of others is ruined. Argument B 4 5. People can rarely be both feared and loved. 6.  If a prince can be only feared or only loved, then it is better for him to be feared than to be loved.

20. Bibliography “Complex Argument Passages” Kareem Khalifa, Department of Philosophy, Middlebury College “Complex Argument Passages” Kareem Khalifa, Department of Philosophy, Middlebury College