1. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Who Gets What? The Distribution of Income Who Gets What? The Distribution of Income Chapter 18

2. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-2 Today’s lecture will: Explain what a Lorenz curve is. Discuss how the poverty definition is both an absolute and a relative measure. Present U.S. income inequality in a global context. Summarize the statistical findings on income and wealth distribution.

3. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-3 Today’s lecture will: Discuss two alternative ways to describe the distribution of income. Explain three problems in determining whether an equal distribution of income is fair. Present three side effects of redistributing income. Summarize the U.S. tax and expenditure programs to redistribute income.

4. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-4 Ways of Considering the Distribution of Income Share distribution of income is the relative division of total income among income groups.  For example, it measures how much income the top 5% get. Socioeconomic distribution of income is the allocation of income among relevant socioeconomic groups.  For example, how much do women get compared to men?

5. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-5 Cumulative percentage of income Lorenz Curve of U.S. Income, 2005 A B C 100 80 60 40 20 0 406080100 F G H I J Income Quintile Percentage of Total Family Income Cumulative Percentage of Total Family Income Lowest fifth Second fifth Third fifth Fourth fifth Highest fifth 8.6 14.6 23.0 50.4 3.4 % 12.0 26.6 49.6 100.0 Cumulative percentage of families

6. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-6 Lorenz Curve for the U.S. 1929, 1970, and 2005 1970 2005 1929 100% 80 60 40 20 0 Cumulative percentage of income 206080100% Cumulative percentage of population 40 Line of absolute equality

7. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-7 Defining Poverty The poverty threshold is the income below which a family is considered to live in poverty. The U.S. government definition of poverty is a combination of a relative and an absolute measure.  Equal to or less than three times an average family’s USDA-calculated minimum food expenditures. The food budget definition was established in the 1960s and is not recalculated to account for rising standards of living.

8. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-8 Debates about the Definition of Poverty There are arguments that the poverty line is both too low and too high. Those who feel that the poverty line is too low would multiply the food figure by roughly four rather than three since food is now about one fourth of a family’s budget. Some argue that the current measure is too high because poverty figures do not include noncash assistance or assets or savings recipients may have.

9. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-9 The Official Definition of Poverty The number of people in poverty:  Decreased during the 1960s.  Increased during the 1970s through the early 1990s.  Decreased during the mid through late 1990s.  Increased in the early 2000s.

10. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-10 People in Poverty, 1960 - 2005

11. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-11 The Cost of Poverty Some feel that society suffers when some of its people are in poverty. When poverty decreases, the incentives for crime also decrease. Some people argue that poverty increased as a result of government tax and spending policies that favor the wealthy. Others argue that it is the result of demographic changes, such as the increase in single-parent families.

12. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-12 U.S. Income Distribution Compared to Other Countries Japan Brazil Cumulative percentage of population Cumulative percentage of income 100 80 60 40 20 0 40608010020 United States Sweden

13. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-13 Per Capita Income (GDP) in Various Countries, 2005

14. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-14 Wealth Compared to Income in the U.S. Family income Household wealth Cumulative percentage of wealth/income 100 80 60 40 20 0 Cumulative percentage of families/households 204060 10080 Bottom fifth Second fifth Third fifth Fourth fifth Top fifth 0 1.2 4.8 13.6 80.4 Wealth Quintile Percentage of total household wealth

15. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-15 Income Distribution by Occupations

16. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-16 The Class System as a Pyramid, a Diamond, and a Pentagon Developing Country’s Class System U.S. Class System in 1960s and 1970s U.S. Class System in Recent Years

17. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-17 Distributional Questions and Tensions in Society Both radicals and libertarians describe the tensions among classes in society better than the mainstream, classless analysis. Mainstream economists focus on the share distribution of income. Radicals focus on class and group structures. Libertarians emphasize the role of special interests in shaping government policy.

18. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-18 Philosophical Debates about Equality and Fairness Some philosophers argue that inequality creates diversity that enriches the lives of everyone. Others maintain that equality is the overriding goal. The Declaration of Independence asserts that “all men are created equal.” Objective economists limit themselves to explaining the effect of various policies on the distribution of income.

19. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-19 Fairness and Equality Most Americans see fairness as equality of opportunity. There are great differences of opinion as to what constitutes “equal opportunity.” There are three problems in determining whether an equal income distribution is fair.  People do not start from equivalent positions.  People’s needs differ.  People’s efforts differ.

20. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-20 Important Side Effects of Redistributive Programs Society may decide to redistribute income from rich to poor to meet its ideal of fairness. There are three side effects of redistribution of income:  The labor to leisure incentive effect.  The tax avoidance or evasion incentive effect.  The incentive to appear more needy than you actually are.

21. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-21 Income Redistribution Policies The government redistributes income through direct and indirect methods. The indirect method involves the establishment and protection of property rights. The direct methods include:  Taxation – policies that tax the rich more than the poor.  Expenditures – programs that help the poor more than the rich.

22. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-22 Taxation to Redistribute Income The federal government gets most of its taxes from:  Personal income tax  Corporate income tax  Social Security tax State and local governments get most of their tax from:  Income tax  Sales tax  Property tax

23. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-23 Taxation to Redistribute Income Progressive – the average tax rate increases with income.  It redistributes income from the rich to the poor. Proportional – the average tax rate is constant regardless of income.  It is neutral in regard to income redistribution. Regressive – the average tax rate decreases as income increases.  It redistributes income from poor to rich.

24. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-24 Expenditure Programs to Redistribute Income Social Security – a social insurance program that provides financial benefits to the elderly and disabled and to their eligible dependents and/or survivors. Medicare – a medical insurance system for retired people. Public assistance programs – means-tested social programs that provide financial, nutritional (Food Stamps), medical (Medicaid), and housing assistance.

25. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-25 Expenditure Programs Supplemental Security Income (SSI) – a federal program that pays benefits, based on need, to the elderly, blind, and disabled. Unemployment Compensation – short-term financial assistance, regardless of need, to eligible individuals who are temporarily out of work. Housing programs – federal and state programs to improve housing or to provide affordable housing.

26. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-26 Distribution of Income Before & After Taxes and Transfers, 2005 Cumulative percentage of income Cumulative percentage of households 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 2030405060708090100 Before taxes and transfers After taxes and transfers

27. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-27Summary The Lorenz curve is a measure of the distribution of income among families in a country. The farther the Lorenz curve is from the diagonal, the more unequally income is distributed. The official poverty measure is an absolute measure because it is based on the minimum food budget for a family. It is a relative measure because it is adjusted for inflation.

28. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-28Summary Income is less equally distributed in the U.S. than in some industrialized countries, such as Sweden, but more equally distributed than in many developing countries, such as Brazil. Wealth is distributed less equally than income. Income differs substantially by class and by other socioeconomic factors, such as age, race, and gender. Fairness is a philosophical question, so people must judge a program’s fairness for themselves.

29. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-29Summary Income is difficult to redistribute because of incentive effects of taxes, avoidance and evasion of taxes, and incentive effects of distribution programs. The U.S. tax system is roughly proportional, so it is not a very effective means of redistributing income. Government spending programs are more effective than taxes in reducing income inequality in the U.S.

30. McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright  2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18-30 Review Question 17-1 What is the official definition of poverty? Why is it both a relative and an absolute measure? A family is in poverty if its income is equal to or less than three times an average family’s minimum food expenditures. The definition is relative because it is adjusted for inflation. It is absolute because it is based on a fixed minimum food budget for a family. Review Question 17-2 What has happened to the distribution of income in the U.S. since 1970 and why? Income in the U.S. has become more unequally distributed since 1970 because real wages did not keep up with inflation, taxes became less progressive, and government funding for many social programs was reduced.