1. PROJECT MANAGEMENT week 10
Dr. Meryem Uluskan

2. Constraint Examples

3. Types of Resource Constraints
People
Human resources are classified by the skills they bring to the project
Ex: programmer, mechanical engineer, welder, inspector, marketing director, supervisor
Material
Material availability and shortages have been blamed for the delay of many projects.
Ex: chemicals for a scientific project, concrete for a road project, survey data for a marketing project
Ex: replacement of some structures on the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco
between midnight and 5:00 A.M.
a penalty of $1,000 per minute for any work taking place after 5:00 A.M.
scheduling the arrival of replacement structures was an extremely important
Equipment
is usually presented by type, size, and quantity
the resource pool
is common to assume the resource will not delay the pending project
the necessary equpiment in the pool might be occupied on other projects

4. Classification of a Scheduling Problem
One simple test to determine if the project is time or resource constrained is to ask
“If the critical path is delayed, will resources be added to get back on schedule?”
if the answer is yes, assume the project is time constrained;
if no, assume the project is resource constrained.

5. Classification of a Scheduling Problem
Classification of Problem
Using a priority matrix will help determine if the project is time or resource constrained.
Time Constrained Project
A project that must be completed by an imposed date.
Time is fixed, resources are flexible: If required, resources can be added to ensure the project is completed by a specific date.
Resource Constrained Project
A project in which the level of resources available cannot be exceeded.
Resources are fixed, time is flexible: If the resources are inadequate, it will be acceptable to delay the project, but as little as possible.

6. Resource Allocation Methods – Resource-Constrained Projects
The parallel method
Allocate resources to minimize project delay without exceeding the resource limit
Schedule period-by-period any activities scheduled to start using the three priority rules.
Minimum slack
Smallest (least) duration
Lowest activity identification number

7. Final resource-constrained schedule

8. New, resource scheduled network

9. Creating a Time-Phased Budget

10. Leadership: Being an Effective Project Manager
Managing versus Leading a Project
Managing Project Stakeholders
Influence as Exchange
Social Network Building
Ethics and Project Management
Building Trust: The Key to Exercising Influence
Qualities of an Effective Project Manager

11. Managing versus Leading a Project
The project manager’s job is to get the project back on track.
A manager
expedites certain activities;
figures out ways to solve technical problems;
serves as peacemaker when tensions rise;
makes appropriate tradeoffs among time, cost, and scope of the project.
They also innovate and adapt to ever-changing circumstances.
They often have to
deviate from what was planned
introduce significant changes in the project scope
schedule to respond to unforeseen threats or opportunities.

12. Managing versus Leading a Project
Management is about coping with complexity,
while leadership is about coping with change.
One of the things that makes good project managers so valuable to an organization is that they have the ability to both manage and lead a project.

13. Managing versus Leading a Project
Managing—coping with complexity
Formulate plans and objectives
Monitor results
Take corrective action
Expedite activities
Solve technical problems
Serve as peacemaker
Make tradeoffs among time, costs, and project scope
Leading—coping with change
Recognize the need to change to keep the project on track
Initiate change
Provide direction and motivation
Innovate and adapt as necessary
Integrate assigned resources

14. Managing Project Stakeholders
A significant project involves in working with a number of different groups of stakeholders.
First, there is the core group of specialists assigned to complete the project. – project team
Second, there are the groups of people within the performing organization who are either directly or indirectly involved with the project. Ex: top management, other managers
There are a number of different groups outside the organization that influence the success of the project; the most important is the customer for which the project is designed.

15. Managing Project Stakeholders
Stakeholders are people and organizations that are actively involved in the project, or whose interests may be positively or negatively affected by the project.
A project manager must understand how stakeholders can affect the project and develop methods for managing the dependency.

16. Managing Project Stakeholders
The Project team manages and completes project work.
Project managers
compete with each other for resources and the support of top management.
they often have to share resources and exchange information.
Administrative support groups,
such as human resources, information systems, purchasing, and maintenance, provide valuable support services.
they also impose constraints and requirements on the project.
Functional managers,
can play a minor or major role toward project success.
they may be responsible for assigning project personnel, resolving technical dilemmas, and overseeing the completion of significant segments of the project work.
Top management
approves funding of the project and establishes priorities within the organization.
Significant adjustments in budget, scope, and schedule typically need their approval.

17. Managing Project Stakeholders
Project sponsors
champion the project and use their influence to gain approval of the project.
they defend the project when it comes under attack and are a key project ally.
Contractors
may do all the actual work, or they are responsible for segments of the project.
poor work and schedule slips can affect work of the core project team.
Government agencies
place constraints on project work.
permits need to be secured.
Other organizations,
may directly or indirectly affect the project.
Ex: suppliers provide necessary resources for completion of the project.
Delays, shortages, and poor quality can be problems.
Public interest groups may apply pressure on government agencies.

18. Managing Project Stakeholders
Customers
define the scope of the project
ultimate project success rests in their satisfaction
project managers need to be responsive to changing customer needs and requirements and to meeting their expectations.
These relationships are interdependent in that a project manager’s ability to work effectively with one group will affect her ability to manage other groups.

19. Managing Project Stakeholders

20. Influence as Exchange The Law of Reciprocity
One good deed deserves another, and likewise, one bad deed deserves another.
Quid pro Quo (something for something)
Mutual exchanges of resources and services (“back- scratching”) build relationships.
Influence “Currencies” (Cohen and Bradford)
Cooperative relationships are built on the exchange of organizational “currencies” (favors).

21. Influence as Exchange Task-Related Currencies
This form of influence comes directly from the project manager’s ability to contribute to others’ accomplishing their work.
The ability to respond to subordinates’ requests for additional manpower, money, or time to complete a segment of a project.
Sharing resources with another project manager who is in need.

22. Influence as Exchange Position-Related Currencies
This form of influence stems from the manager’s ability to enhance others’ positions within their organization.
A project manager can do this by giving someone
a challenging assignment that can aid their advancement by developing their skills and abilities.

23. Commonly Traded Organizational Currencies
Task-related currencies
Resources Lending or giving money, budget increases, personnel, etc.
Assistance Helping with existing projects or undertaking unwanted tasks.
Cooperation Giving task support, providing quicker response time, or aiding implementation.
Information Providing organizational as well as technical knowledge.
Position-related currencies
Advancement Giving a task or assignment that can result in promotion.
Recognition Acknowledging effort, accomplishments, or abilities.
Visibility Providing a chance to be known by higher-ups or significant others in the organization.
Network/contacts Providing opportunities for linking with others.

24. Commonly Traded Organizational Currencies
Inspiration-related currencies
Vision Being involved in a task that has larger significance for the unit, organization, customer, or society.
Excellence Having a chance to do important things really well.
Ethical correctness Doing what is “right” by a higher standard than efficiency.
Relationship-related currencies
Acceptance Providing closeness and friendship.
Personal support Giving personal and emotional backing.
Understanding Listening to others’ concerns and issues.
Personal-related currencies
Challenge/learning Sharing tasks that increase skills and abilities.
Ownership/involvement Letting others have ownership and influence.
Gratitude Expressing appreciation.

25. Social Network Building
Mapping Dependencies
Project team perspective:
Whose cooperation will be needed?
Whose agreement or approval will we need?
Whose opposition would keep us from accomplishing the project?
Stakeholders’ perspective:
What differences exist between the team and those on whom the team will depend?
How do the stakeholders view the project?
What is the status of our relationships with other stakeholders?
What sources of influence does the team have relative to the stakeholders?

26. Dependencies for Financial Software Installation Project

27. Management by Wandering Around (MBWA)
A management style that involves managers spending the majority of time outside of their offices in face-to-face interactions with employees building cooperative relationships.
Characteristics of Effective Project Managers
Initiate contact with key players / stakeholders.
They keep in touch with suppliers, vendors, top management, and other functional managers.
In doing so they maintain familiarity with different parties, sustain friendships, discover opportunities to do favors, and understand the motives and needs of others.
Anticipate potential problems.
Provide encouragement.
Reinforce the objectives and vision of the project.
Recognize the need to build relationships before they need them.

28. Managing Upward Relations
Project Success = Top Management Support
Appropriate budgets
Responsiveness to unexpected needs
Importance of cooperation
Motivating the Project Team
Influence top management in favor of the team:
Cancel unreasonable demands
Provide additional resources
Recognize the accomplishments of team members

29. Managing Upward Relations
Statements like the following are often made by project managers about upper management:
“They don’t know how much it sets us back losing Kemal to another project.”
“I would like to see them get this project done with the budget they gave us.”
“I just wish they would make up their minds as to what is really important.”
Many of the tensions that arise between upper management and project managers are a result of differences in perspective.
Project managers become naturally absorbed with what is best for their project and to them the most important thing in the world is their project.
Top management should have a different set of priorities.
First prove loyalty
Persuade upper management

30. The Significance of a Project Sponsor
Sponsors are high-ranking officials who championed approval and funding of the project
Their reputations are aligned with the project.
Defend the project when it is under attack in upper circles of management.
Shelter the project from excessive interference

31. Leading by Example

32. Leading by Example Priorities Actions speak louder than words. Urgency
Sense of urgency through stringent deadlines, frequent status report meetings, and aggressive solutions for expediting the project.
Problem Solving
How project managers respond to problems sets the tone for how others tackle problems.
Cooperation
How project managers act toward outsiders influences how team members interact with outsiders.
Standards of Performance
If PMs want participants to exceed project expectations then they have to exceed others’ expectations of a good PM.
Ethics
How others respond to ethical dilemmas will be influenced by how the project manager has responded to similar dilemmas.

33. Ethics and Project Management
Ethical dilemmas
Situations where it is difficult to determine whether conduct is right or wrong.
Padding of cost and time estimations
Exaggerating pay-offs of project proposals
Falsely assuring customers that everything is on track
Being pressured to alter status reports
Compromising safety standards to accelerate progress
Approving shoddy work
Code of conduct
Professional standards and personal integrity
One common rule of thumb for testing whether a response is ethical is to ask,
“Imagine that whatever you did was going to be reported on the front page of your local newspaper. How would you like that? Would you be comfortable?”

34. Building Trust: The Key to Exercising Influence
“At first everyone liked Joe and was excited about the project. But after a while, people became suspicious of his motives. He had a tendency to say different things to different people. People began to feel manipulated. He spent too much time with top management. People began to believe that he was only looking out for himself. It was HIS project. When the project began to slip he jumped ship and left someone else holding the bag. I’ll never work for that guy again.”
“My first impression of Jack was nothing special. He had a quiet, unassuming management style. Over time I learned to respect his judgment and his ability to get people to work together. When you went to him with a problem or a request, he always listened carefully. If he couldn’t do what you wanted him to do, he would take the time to explain why. When disagreements arose he always thought of what was best for the project. He treated everyone by the same rules; no one got special treatment. I’d jump at the opportunity to work on a project with him again.”

35. Contradictions of Project Management
Innovate and maintain stability.
See the big picture while getting your hands dirty.
Encourage individuals but stress the team.
Hands-off/Hands-on.
Flexible but firm.
Team versus organizational loyalties.

36. Qualities of an Effective Project Manager
Systems thinker
Personal integrity
Proactive
High tolerance for stress
General business perspective
Good communicator
Effective time management
Skillful politician
Optimist

37. High-Performing Teams
Synergy
= 10 (positive synergy)
= 2 (negative synergy)
“Instead of operating as one big team we fractionalized into a series of subgroups. The marketing people stuck together as well as the systems guys. A lot of time was wasted gossiping and complaining about each other. When the project started slipping behind schedule, everyone started covering their tracks and trying to pass the blame on to others. After a while we avoided direct conversation and resorted to . Management finally pulled the plug and brought in another team to salvage the project. It was one of the worst project management experiences in my life.”

38. High-Performing Teams
“There was a contagious excitement within the team. Sure we had our share of problems and setbacks, but we dealt with them straight on and, at times, were able to do the impossible. We all cared about the project and looked out for each other. At the same time we challenged each other to do better. It was one of the most exciting times in my life.”

39. High-Performing Teams
Synergy
= 10 (positive synergy)
= 2 (negative synergy)
Characteristics of High-performing Teams
Share a sense of common purpose
Identifies individual talents and expertise and uses them
Have balanced and shared roles
Have energy toward problem solving rather than allowing itself to be drained by interpersonal issues or competitive struggles
Accept differences of opinion and expression
Encourage risk taking and creativity
Sets high personal performance standards
Identify with the team

40. The Five-Stage Team Development Model
Forming
members get acquainted with each other and understand the scope of the project.
completed once members begin to think of themselves as part of a group.
Storming
high degree of internal conflict
resist the constraints that the project and group put on their individuality
conflict over who will control the group and how decisions will be made
As these conflicts are resolved, the project manager’s leadership gets accepted, the group moves to the next stage.

41. The Five-Stage Team Development Model
Norming
close relationships develop and the group demonstrates cohesiveness.
feelings of shared responsibility for the project are heightened.
is complete when the group establishes a common set of expectations about how members should work together.
Performing
The team operating structure at this point is fully functional and accepted.
Group energy has moved to accomplishing the project goals.
Adjourning
completion phase
high performance is no longer a top priority.
instead attention is devoted to wrapping up the project.

42. The Five-Stage Team Development Model

43. The Punctuated Equilibrium Model of Group Development
Phase I continues until one-half of the allotted time for project completion has expired (regardless of actual amount of time).
At this midpoint, a major transition occurs that includes the dropping of the group’s old norms and behavior patterns and the emergence of new behavior and working relationships that contribute to increased progress toward completing the project.
The groups universally experienced a midlife crisis at this point.
The midpoint appeared to work like an alarm clock, heightening members’ awareness that time was limited and they needed to get moving.

44. Situational Factors Affecting Team Development
Ten or fewer team members
Voluntary team membership
Continuous service on the team
Full-time assignment to the team
An organization culture of cooperation and trust
Members report only to the project manager
All relevant functional areas are represented on the team
The project has a compelling objective
Members are in speaking distance of each other

45. Building High-Performance Project Teams

46. Building High-Performance Project Teams
Recruiting Project Members
Factors affecting recruiting
Importance of the project
Management structure used to complete the project
How to recruit?
Ask for volunteers
Who to recruit?
Problem-solving ability
Availability
Technological expertise
Credibility
Political connections
Ambition, initiative, and energy
Who is good, who is available, and who might want to work on the project.
Discuss project requirements for staffing with functional managers.
documents should be available at these discussions:
an overall project scope statement,
endorsements of top management,
a description of the tasks and general schedule that include people from their departments.
be precise as to what attributes you are seeking and why they are important.

47. Conducting Project Meetings

48. Conducting Project Meetings The First Project Team Meeting
The first project kick-off meeting is critical to the early functioning of the project team.
Three objectives to achieve during the first meeting:
1. To provide an overview of the project, including
the scope and objectives,
the general schedule, method, and procedures.
2. To begin to address some of the interpersonal concerns captured in the team development:
Who are the other team members? How will I fit in?
Will I be able to work with these people?
3. To begin to model how the team is going to work together to complete the project.

49. Conducting Project Meetings The First Project Team Meeting
First impressions are important;
PM’s behavior will be carefully monitored and interpreted by team members.
This meeting should serve as an example and role model for subsequent meetings and reflect the leader’s style.
Off-site kick-off meetings
If the meeting is short then the PM should simply
review the scope of the project,
discuss how the team was formed,
provide an opportunity for members to introduce themselves to the team.

50. Establishing Ground Rules
Establish operational ground rules for how the team will work together
Not only organizational and procedural issues but also normative issues on how the team will interact with each other.
Planning Decisions
How will the project plan be developed?
What tools will be used to support the project?
What are the deliverables of the project planning process?
Tracking Decisions
How will team members get data from each other?
Who will generate and distribute reports?
Meetings
Managing Change Decisions
How will changes be instituted?
Relationship Decisions
What department or organizations will the team need to interact with during the project?
How will all involved parties be kept informed of deliverables, schedule dates, expectations, etc.?

51. Establishing Ground Rules
Some of the norms researchers have found associated with high- performance teams:
• Confidentiality is maintained; no information is shared outside the team unless all agree to it.
• It is acceptable to be in trouble, but it is not acceptable to surprise others. Tell others immediately when deadlines or milestones will not be reached.
• There is zero tolerance for bulling a way through a problem or an issue.
• Agree to disagree, but when a decision has been made, regardless of personal feelings, move forward.
• Respect outsiders, and do not flaunt one’s position on the project team.
• Hard work does not get in the way of having fun.

52. Managing Subsequent Project Meetings
Ex. status report meetings, problem-solving meetings, and audit meetings.
Guidelines for running effective meetings.
Start meetings on time
Prepare and distribute an agenda
Review how effective previous meetings have been.
Ask for recommendations
Assign good recordkeeping
Review the agenda before beginning
Prioritize issues
Encourage active participation
Summarize decisions, and review assignments for the next meeting.
Prepare and distribute a summary of the meeting to appropriate people.
Recognize accomplishments and positive behavior.

53. Conducting Project Meetings

54. Establishing a Team Identity
Effective Use of Meetings
communicate project information
work together in a common space
an associated team logo is also created
symbolic actions at the project level can contribute to a unique team subculture.
Co-location of team members
Creation of project team name
Team rituals

55. Requirements for an Effective Project Vision

56. Managing Project Reward Systems
Group Rewards
Who gets what as an individual reward?
How to make the reward have lasting significance?
How to recognize individual performance?
Letters of commendation
Public recognition for outstanding work
Desirable job assignments
Increased personal flexibility

57. Orchestrating the Decision-Making Process
Problem Identification
Generating Alternatives
Reaching a Decision
Follow-up

58. Conflict Intensity Over the Project Life Cycle

59. Conflict Intensity Over the Project Life Cycle
Definition phase
Disputes occur over the relative importance of the project compared with other activities,
which project management structure to use (especially how much control the project manager should have),
the personnel to be assigned,
and the scheduling of the project into existing workloads.
Planning phase
Disagreements often emerge over
the final schedule,
the availability of resources,
communication and decision making procedures,
and technical requirements for the project.

60. Conflict Intensity Over the Project Life Cycle
During the execution phase, friction arises over schedule slippage, technical problems, and staff issues.
Milestones become more difficult to meet because of accumulating schedule slippages.
This leads to tension within the team as delays prevent others from starting or completing their work.
Managing the trade-offs between time, cost, and performance becomes paramount.
During the delivery phase, schedules continue as the biggest source of conflict
as schedule slippages make it more difficult to meet target completion dates.

61. Managing Conflict within the Project Team
Managing Dysfunctional Conflict
Mediate the conflict.
Arbitrate the conflict.
Control the conflict.
Accept the conflict.
Eliminate the conflict.

62. Next week
Next week we will have a quiz at the beginning of our lecture.