1. Parts of Speech: Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, Interjections

2. Noun: The name of a person, place, or thing. Proper nouns: capitalized Common nouns: not capitalized Concrete nouns: names of objects Abstract nouns: names of ideas

3. Collective nouns: names of groups of things Singular nouns: names of individual things Plural nouns: names of plural things

4.  Pronoun: A word that takes the place of a noun.  Pronouns make language fast.  Pronouns can be masculine (he, him, his)  Pronouns can be feminine (she, her, hers)

5. Subject pronouns SingularPlural First person:Iwe Second person:youyou Third person:he, she, itthey

6.  The pronoun’s antecedent is the noun the pronoun replaces.

7.  Pronouns are not specific!  This causes problems when the pronoun could refer to several different antecedents.  Example: The boy and his friend walked home and soon he stopped to tie his shoe.

8. Object pronouns SingularPlural 1 st person:meus 2 nd person:youyou 3 rd person:him, her, itthem

9. Possessive pronouns A pronoun that is used to show possession Used as both a pronoun and an adjective Does not need apostrophes Possessive pronouns: my, your, his, her, its, our, theirs it’s is a contraction of it is, not a pronoun

10.  Interrogative pronouns Used in a question  who, whose, whom, which, that  Demonstrative pronouns Used to demonstrate  this, that, these, those  Relative pronouns Relates an adjective clause to a main clause  who, whose, whom, which, that

11.  Reflexive pronouns Ends in –self or –selves and reflects back to a word used previously in the sentence himself, herself, myself  Indefinite pronouns General pronouns that do not have definite antecedents anyone, anybody, each, all, someone  Intensive pronouns Is a –self or –selves pronoun used to intensify the emphasis on a noun or another pronoun I, myself, agree with that idea.

12.  Pronoun/antecedent agreement A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number. If the noun is singular, the pronoun must be singular too. Alexander brought the column to a halt; he summoned his mapmaker. The soldiers found Archimedes; they did not recognize the crazy old man. If Hemingway or Fitzgerald is here, let him in. If Hemingway and Fitzgerald are here, let them in.

13.  Common pronoun reference errors:  The missing antecedent No antecedent noun to which the pronoun refers He was born in 1895? (he who?)  The ambiguous reference Two or more nouns to which the pronoun might refer The boy and his friend stopped to tie his shoe.  The ghost demonstration error Misusing the pronoun this and confusing the reader This soon resulted in...(this what?)

14.  The solution: Replace the pronoun with a noun. Some additional pronouns: It is advisable to think first. Each person had her own method.

15. “This dog looked like he belonged to rich people. Fausto cleaned his juice-sticky hands on his pants and got to his feet. The light in his head grew brighter. It just might work. He called the dog, patted its muscular back, and bent down to check the license.” How many words are in this passage? How many of these words are pronouns? 48 9

16. “This dog looked like he belonged to rich people. Fausto cleaned his juice-sticky hands on his pants and got to his feet. The light in his head grew brighter. It just might work. He called the dog, patted its muscular back, and bent down to check the license.” How many words are in this passage? How many of these words are pronouns? 48 8

17.  ADJECTIVE:  A word that modifies a noun or pronoun.  Modify means to change.  Adjectives help us to describe nouns and pronouns more completely.  A noun can do without an adjective, but an adjective cannot exist without a noun or pronoun.

18.  There are three degrees of adjectives  Positive  Comparative  Superlative Goodbetterbest Positivecomparativesuperlative Easyeasiereasiest

19.  Proper adjectives are made out of proper nouns. England makes English Rome makes Roman English and Spanish are capitalized because they come from proper nouns (as opposed to history and math)

20.  Articles  a, an, the The definite article is the The indefinite articles are a and an Spanish has masculine and feminine articles, English does not.

21.  Verb:  A word that shows actions, being, or links a subject to a subject compliment  The verb is saying that the noun did something or that the noun is something.

22.  Action verbs  Might show simple action Verdi composed.  Might show action on a direct object Verdi composed the opera.

23.  Linking verbs:  Linking verbs: am, is, are, was, were, being, been  Might link the subject to a subject compliment. He is a poet. (a poet is the subject compliment) He was going to studying all night. (going to studying all night is the subject complement)

24.  Four principle parts of the verb:  Infinitive to go, to do, to think, to dream  Present participle going, doing, thinking, dreaming  Past went, did, thought, dreamed  Past participle gone, done, thought, dreamed

25.  Regular verbs:  Most verbs make the four principle parts in the same regular way. Infinitivepresent partpast past part To workworkingworkedworked To spillspillingspilledspilled  Irregular verbs:  Those verbs that are unique and have no pattern. To shrink, shrinking, shrank, shrunk To ring, ringing, rang, rung To break, breaking, broke, broken

26.  Auxiliary or helping verbs  In a compound tense, the main verb is supplemented by an auxiliary or helping verb. I will have composed a symphony. (the main verb is composed and the auxiliary verbs are will have)  Transitive verb  Is an action verb that acts on a direct object. The harpoon hit Moby Dick.  Intransitive verb  Is an action verb that does not act on a direct object. Harpoons flew.

27.  Active Voice  Is an action verb that shows the subject acting. Johnson discussed the problem.  Passive Voice  Is an action verb that shows the subject passively being acted upon. The problem was discussed. Passive voice is used often in scientific writing. Not: First I administered the placebos. But: The placebos were administered.

28.  Active Voice:  The meteor struck the ship.  Passive Voice:  The ship was struck by the meteor.  Active Voice:  The Literary Society presented Dickens the award.  Passive Voice:  Dickens was presented with an award.

29.  Verbs also indicate time.  There are six verb tenses.  Present  Past  Future  Present perfect  Past perfect  Future perfect

30.  They are called perfect tense because it is the tense of things that are finished:  in the past  in the present  in the future

31.  Present progressive:  Indicates an action still in progress. Present progressive: I am protesting. Past progressives: I was protesting. Future progressive: I shall be protesting. Present perfect progressive: I have been protesting. Past perfect progressive: I had been protesting. Future perfect progressive: I shall have been protesting.

32.  Verbs have moods.  Indicative  Ordinary mood I am going.  Imperative  Command mood Go!  Subjunctive (used with the verb were)  IF mood If I was going... (Spanish and the soft subjunctive.)

33.  Parallel verb tense—sticking to the tense you are using.  Not parallel  When Charles Dickens went to America, he gives many speeches and feels that his trip was successful.  Parallel  When Charles Dickens went to America, he gave many speeches and felt that his trip was successful.

34.  Only action verbs are transitive or intransitive, active or passive voice.  Linking verbs (To be) are not.

35.  Adverb: a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.  Adverbs modify three kinds of words that adjectives do not modify.

36.  Don’t overuse adverbs.  “During the first half of the twentieth century the world greatly changed.”  “During the first half of the twentieth century, the world changed.”  Try to avoid the use of “very”  He was very, very hungry.  He was hungry.

37. AAdverbs often show when, where, under what condition and how. WWhen? AAlways, earlier, frequently, late, never, now, often, seldom, tomorrow, usually, yesterday WWhere? DDown, everywhere, here, in, North, nowhere, out, somewhere, South, there, up, upstairs

38. UUnder what condition? AAlso, certainly, maybe, not, perhaps, possibly, out HHow? (most of these end in –ly) CCarefully, commonly, easily, fast, noisily, quickly, slowly, well

39.  A word that shows the relationship between its object and another word in the sentence.  Prepositions show where two things are located, in relationship to each other.  Prepositions show relationships of  Time—before, during, after  Space—in, on, beside, around  Direction—to, from, toward

40.  Most of the time, you shouldn’t end a sentence with a preposition. It happens more often now.  “Who is this present for?”  “For whom is this present?”

41.  Concatenated (chained) prepositional phrases—one of the most common patterns in grammar.  This is a chain of prepositional phrases in which each phrase modifies the object of preposition of the previous phrase.  Her eyes were of the blue of the sky in the fall in San Juan.

42.  A word that joins two words or two groups of words.  Coordinating conjunctions joins equals.  Memorize these conjunctions:  and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet

43.  Subordinating conjunctions subordinate.  They join something of lesser importance to something of greater importance.  Here are some subordinating conjunctions:  if, as, since, when, because

44.  Correlative conjunctions are multiple-word conjunctions  Either/or and neither/nor  Conjunctive adverbs are conjunctions that act as both adverbs and conjunctions  However, furthermore, moreover, nevertheless, accordingly, and therefore

45.  A word that shows emotion but has no grammatical function.  The interjection stands alone unlike all the other parts of speech.  Interjections are the words that fill action comic books.  Oh, ugh, oof, wow, yes, no, oops, etc.

46.  The core of every idea is a noun/pronoun and a verb.  All other parts of speech provide elaborations and variations.

47.  Parts of speech, simplified:  Nouns name things  Pronouns make language fast  Verbs make events and equations  Adjective and adverbs adjust nouns and verbs  Prepositions show relationships of physics and 3- Dness  Conjunctions combine  Interjections emote