1. Chapter 3 Section 1

2. Newton’s Laws of Motion  1 st Law  1 st Law – An object at rest will stay at rest, and an object in motion will stay in motion at constant velocity, unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.  2 nd Law  2 nd Law – Force equals mass times acceleration.  3 rd Law  3 rd Law – For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

3. 1 st Law of Motion (Law of Inertia) An object at rest will stay at rest, and an object in motion will stay in motion at constant velocity, unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.

4. 1 st Law Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist changes in its velocity: whether in motion or motionless. Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist changes in its velocity: whether in motion or motionless. These pumpkins will not move unless acted on by an unbalanced force.

5. 1 st Law Once airborne, unless acted on by an unbalanced force (gravity and air – fluid friction), it would never stop! Once airborne, unless acted on by an unbalanced force (gravity and air – fluid friction), it would never stop!

6. 1 st Law Unless acted upon by an unbalanced force, this golf ball would sit on the tee forever. Unless acted upon by an unbalanced force, this golf ball would sit on the tee forever.

7. Why then, do we observe every day objects in motion slowing down and becoming motionless seemingly without an outside force? It’s a force we sometimes cannot see – friction.

8. What’s different about throwing a ball horizontally as hard as you can and tossing it gently? When you throw hard, you exert a much greater force on the ball. Force and Acceleration 3.1 Newton’s Second Law

9. Force and Acceleration 3.1 Newton’s Second Law The hard- thrown ball has a greater change in velocity, and the change occurs over a shorter period of time.

10. Recall that acceleration is the change in velocity divided by the time it takes for the change to occur. So, a hard-thrown ball has a greater acceleration than a gently thrown ball. Force and Acceleration 3.1 Newton’s Second Law

11. If you throw a softball and a baseball as hard as you can, why don’t they have the same speed? The difference is due to their masses. Mass and Acceleration 3.1 Newton’s Second Law

12. If it takes the same amount of time to throw both balls, the softball would have less acceleration. Mass and Acceleration 3.1 Newton’s Second Law The acceleration of an object depends on its mass as well as the force exerted on it. Force, mass, and acceleration are related.

13.  Net force acting on an object causes object to accelerate in the direction of net force  Force & motion are connected  An object will have greater acceleration if a greater force is applied to it.  The mass of an object and the force applied to it affect acceleration.

14. Newton’s second law of motion states that the acceleration of an object is in the same direction as the net force on the object, and that the acceleration can be calculated from the following equation: Newton’s Second Law

15. Newton’s 2 nd Law of Motion  Newton’s 2 nd law of motion connects force, mass, and acceleration in the equation acceleration equals net force divided by mass  Uses the equation:  F = ma F m a

16.  Friction  Force that opposes motion between two surfaces that are touching each other  Microwelds  Area where surface bump stick together  Static Friction  Friction between two surfaces that are not moving past each other  Sliding friction  Force that opposes the motion of two surfaces sliding past each other  Rolling friction  Friction between a rolling object and the surface it rolls on

17. Suppose you give a skateboard a push with your hand. Friction According to Newton’s first law of motion, if the net force acting on a moving object is zero, it will continue to move in a straight line with constant speed. Does the skateboard keep moving with constant speed after it leaves your hand?

18. Recall that when an object slows down it is accelerating. Friction By Newton’s second law, if the skateboard is accelerating, there must be a net force acting on it.

19. The force that slows the skateboard and brings it to a stop is friction. Friction is the force that opposes the sliding motion of two surfaces that are touching each other. The amount of friction between two surfaces depends on two factorsthe kinds of surfaces and the force pressing the surfaces together.

20. If two surfaces are in contact, welding or sticking occurs where the bumps touch each other. What causes friction? These microwelds are the source of friction.

21. The larger the force pushing the two surfaces together is, the stronger these microwelds will be, because more of the surface bumps will come into contact. Sticking Together To move one surface over the other, a force must be applied to break the microwelds.

22. Suppose you have filled a cardboard box with books and want to move it. Static Friction It’s too heavy to lift, so you start pushing on it, but it doesn’t budge. If the box doesn’t move, then it has zero acceleration.

23. According to Newton’s second law, if the acceleration is zero, then the net force on the box is zero. Static Friction Another force that cancels your push must be acting on the box.

24. That force is the friction due to the microwelds that have formed between the bottom of the box and the floor. Static Friction Static friction is the frictional force that prevents two surfaces from sliding past each other.

25. You ask a friend to help you move the box. Sliding Friction Pushing together, the box moves. Together you and your friend have exerted enough force to break the microwelds between the floor and the bottom of the box.

26. If you stop pushing, the box quickly comes to a stop. Sliding Friction This is because as the box slides across the floor, another forcesliding frictionopposes the motion of the box. Sliding friction is the force that opposes the motion of two surfaces sliding past each other.

27. Rolling Friction As a wheel rolls over a surface, the wheel digs into the surface, causing both the wheel and the surface to be deformed.

28. Static friction acts over the deformed area where the wheel and surface are in contact, producing a frictional force called rolling fiction. Rolling Friction Rolling friction is the frictional force between a rolling object and the surface it rolls on.

29.  Air resistance  Force that opposes the force of gravity  The amount of air resistance depends on an object’s shape, size, and speed.  Terminal velocity  Forces on a falling object are balanced and the object falls with constant speed  When a falling object no longer accelerates  When a falling object has it’s acceleration due to gravity equals to it’s air resistance

30. When an object falls toward Earth, it is pulled downward by the force of gravity. Air Resistance However, a fluid friction force called air resistance opposes the motion of objects that move through the air. Air resistance causes objects to fall with different accelerations and different speeds.

31. Air resistance acts in the opposite direction to the motion of an object through air. Air Resistance If the object is falling downward, air resistance acts upward on the object. The size of the air resistance force also depends on the size and shape of an object.

32. The amount of air resistance on an object depends on the speed, size, and shape of the object. Air Resistance Air resistance, not the object’s mass, is why feathers, leaves, and pieces of paper fall more slowly than pennies, acorns, and apples.

33. As an object falls, the downward force of gravity causes the object to accelerate. Terminal Velocity However, as an object falls faster, the upward force of air resistance increases. This causes the net force on a sky diver to decrease as the sky diver falls.

34. Finally, the upward air resistance force becomes large enough to balance the downward force of gravity. Terminal Velocity This means the net force on the object is zero. Then the acceleration of the object is also zero, and the object falls with a constant speed called the terminal velocity.

35. The terminal velocity is the highest speed a falling object will reach. Terminal Velocity The terminal velocity depends on the size, shape, and mass of a falling object.

36. 3.1 Section Check Question 1 A. acceleration B. momentum C. speed D. velocity Newton’s second law of motion states that _________ of an object is in the same direction as the net force on the object.

37. 3.1 Section Check Answer The answer is A. Acceleration can be calculated by dividing the net force in newtons by the mass in kilograms.

38. 3.1 Section Check Question 2 A. joule B. lux C. newton D. watt The unit of force is __________.

39. 3.1 Section Check Answer The answer is C. One newton = 1 kg · m/s 2

40. 3.1 Section Check Answer Friction results from the sticking together of two surfaces that are in contact. Question 3 What causes friction?

41. Section 2

42. What is gravity? Gravity is an attractive force between any two objects that depends on the masses of the objects and the distance between them.

43.  Law of gravitation  Any two masses exert an attractive force on each other  Four Basic Forces include: (from strongest to weakest)  Strong nuclear force (within the nucleus of an atom)  Weak nuclear force  Electromagnetic force (repel AND attract)  Gravity (attract, ONLY)  Gravity  A long-range force that gives the universe its structure  Acceleration due to Gravity  g = 9.8 m/s 2

44. Isaac Newton formulated the law of universal gravitation, which he published in 1687. This law can be written as the following equation. The Law of Universal Gravitation

45. In this equation G is a constant called the universal gravitational constant, and d is the distance between the two masses, m1 and m2. The law of universal gravitation enables the force of gravity to be calculated between any two objects if their masses and the distance between them is known. The Law of Universal Gravitation

46. According to the law of universal gravitation, the gravitational force between two masses decreases rapidly as the distance between the masses increases. The Range of Gravity

47. No matter how far apart two objects are, the gravitational force between them never completely goes to zero. The Range of Gravity Because the gravitational force between two objects never disappears, gravity is called a long- range force.

48. In the 1840s the most distant planet known was Uranus. Finding Other Planets The motion of Uranus calculated from the law of universal gravitation disagreed slightly with its observed motion. Some astronomers suggested that there must be an undiscovered planet affecting the motion of Uranus.

49. Using the law of universal gravitation and Newton’s laws of motion, two astronomers independently calculated the orbit of this planet. Finding Other Planets As a result of these calculations, the planet Neptune was found in 1846.

50. Earth’s Gravitational Acceleration When all forces except gravity acting on a falling object can be ignored, the object is said to be in free fall. Close to Earth’s surface, the acceleration of a falling object in free fall is about 9.8 m/s 2. This acceleration is given the symbol g and is sometimes called the acceleration due to gravity.

51.  Weight  gravitational force exerted on an object’s mass  decreases as an object moves away from Earth W = mg  Objects in space shuttle float because they have no force supporting them.

52. Weight and mass are not the same. Weight and Mass Weight is a force and mass is a measure of the amount of matter an object contains. Weight and mass are related. Weight increases as mass increases.

53. The weight of an object usually is the gravitational force between the object and Earth. Weight and Mass The weight of an object can change, depending on the gravitational force on the object, but mass remains constant.

54. CALCULATE YOUR WEIGHT  Convert your weight in pounds to mass in kilograms by multiplying your weight by 0.454 pounds x 0.454 = mass (kg)  Then multiply your mass by acceleration due to gravity: 9.8 m/s 2  Weight (N) = mg  What is your weight in Newtons?

55. The table shows how various weights on Earth would be different on the Moon and some of the planets. Weight and Mass

56. You’ve probably seen pictures of astronauts and equipment floating inside the space shuttle. Weightlessness and Free Fall They are said to be experiencing the sensation of weightlessness.

57. However, for a typical mission, the shuttle orbits Earth at an altitude of about 400 km. Weightlessness and Free Fall According to the law of universal gravitation, at 400-km altitude the force of Earth’s gravity is about 90 percent as strong as it is at Earth’s surface. So an astronaut with a mass of 80 kg weighs 780 N on Earth’s surface, would still weigh about 700 N in orbit.

58. So what does it mean to say that something is weightless in orbit? Floating in Space When you stand on a scale you are at rest and the net force on you is zero. The scale supports you and balances your weight by exerting an upward force.

59. The dial on the scale shows the upward force exerted by the scale, which is your weight. Floating in Space Now suppose you stand on the scale in an elevator that is falling.

60. If you and the scale were in free fall, then you no longer would push down on the scale at all. Floating in Space The scale dial would say you have zero weight, even though the force of gravity on you hasn’t changed.

61. A space shuttle in orbit is in free fall, but it is falling around Earth, rather than straight downward. Floating in Space Everything in the orbiting space shuttle is falling around Earth at the same rate, in the same way you and the scale were falling in the elevator. Objects in the shuttle seem to be floating because they are all falling with the same acceleration.

62. If you’ve tossed a ball to someone, you’ve probably noticed that thrown objects don’t always travel in straight lines. They curve downward. Projectile Motion Earth’s gravity causes projectiles to follow a curved path.

63. When you throw a ball, the force exerted by your hand pushes the ball forward. Horizontal and Vertical Motions This force gives the ball horizontal motion. No force accelerates it forward, so its horizontal velocity is constant, if you ignore air resistance.

64. However, when you let go of the ball, gravity is pulling it downward, giving it vertical motion. Horizontal and Vertical Motions The ball has constant horizontal velocity but increasing vertical velocity (downward). Horizontal motion and vertical motion are independent of each other!

65. Gravity exerts an unbalanced force on the ball, changing the direction of its path from only forward to forward and downward. Horizontal and Vertical Motions The result of these two motions is that the ball appears to travel in a curve.

66. If you were to throw a ball as hard as you could from shoulder height in a perfectly horizontal direction, would it take longer to reach the ground than if you dropped a ball from the same height? Horizontal and Vertical Distance Click image to view movie

67. Surprisingly, it wouldn’t. Horizontal and Vertical Distance Both balls travel the same vertical distance in the same amount of time.

68. When a ball enters a curve, even if its speed does not change, it is accelerating because its direction is changing. Centripetal Force When a ball goes around a curve, the change in the direction of the velocity is toward the center of the curve.

69. Acceleration toward the center of a curved or circular path is called centripetal acceleration. Centripetal Force

70. According to the second law of motion, when a ball has centripetal acceleration, the direction of the net force on the ball also must be toward the center of the curved path. Centripetal Force The net force exerted toward the center of a curved path is called a centripetal force.

71. When a car rounds a curve on a highway, a centripetal force must be acting on the car to keep it moving in a curved path. Centripetal Force and Traction This centripetal force is the frictional force, or the traction, between the tires and the road surface.

72. Anything that moves in a circle is doing so because a centripetal force is accelerating it toward the center. Centripetal Force and Traction

73. Imagine whirling an object tied to a string above your head. Gravity Can Be a Centripetal Force The string exerts a centripetal force on the object that keeps it moving in a circular path.

74. Gravity Can Be a Centripetal Force In the same way, Earth’s gravity exerts a centripetal force on the Moon that keeps it moving in a nearly circular orbit.

75.  Projectiles  Anything that is thrown  Have horizontal and vertical velocities due to gravity  Follow a curved path  Centripetal Acceleration  Acceleration toward the center of a curved path  Is caused by a centripetal force, an unbalanced force Summary:

76. 3.2 Section Check Question 1 Gravity is an attractive force between any two objects and depends on the masses of the objects and the distance between them. Gravity is an attractive force between any two objects and depends on __________. Answer

77. 3.2 Section Check Question 2 A. gravity B. net C. strong nuclear D. weak nuclear Which is NOT one of the four basic forces?

78. 3.2 Section Check Answer The answer is B. The fourth basic force is the electromagnetic force, which causes electricity, magnetism, and chemical interactions between atoms and molecules.

79. 3.2 Section Check Question 3 A. F = G(m 1 m 2 /d 2 ) B. G = F(m 1 m 2 /d 2 ) C. F = G(m 1 - m 2 /d 2 ) D. F = G(d 2 /m 1 m 2 ) Which of the following equations represents the law of universal gravitation?

80. 3.2 Section Check Answer The answer is A. In the equation, G is the universal gravitational constant and d is the distance between the two masses, m 1 and m 2.

81. CHAPTER 3 Section 3 Newton’s 3 rd Law of Motion

82. Newton’s third law of motion describes action-reaction pairs this way. When one object exerts a force on a second object, the second one exerts a force on the first that is equal in strength and opposite in direction.

83. Action and Reaction When a force is applied in nature, a reaction force occurs at the same time. When you jump on a trampoline, for example, you exert a downward force on the trampoline. The Third Law of Motion Simultaneously, the trampoline exerts an equal force upward, sending you high into the air.

84. Action and Reaction Forces Don’t Cancel According to the third law of motion, action and reaction forces act on different objects. Thus, even though the forces are equal, they are not balanced because they act on different objects.

85. Newton’s 3 rd Law of Motion  For every action there is an equal but opposite reaction  Action-reaction forces act on different objects and differ from balanced forces.  States that forces come in pairs  Rocket propulsion is based on Newton’s third law of motion.

86. For example, a swimmer “acts” on the water, the “reaction” of the water pushes the swimmer forward. Thus, a net force, or unbalanced force, acts on the swimmer so a change in his or her motion occurs. Action and Reaction Forces Don’t Cancel

87. Rocket Propulsion In a rocket engine, burning fuel produces hot gases. The rocket engine exerts a force on these gases and causes them to escape out the back of the rocket. By Newton’s third law, the gases exert a force on the rocket and push it forward.

88.  Momentum  related to how much force is needed to change an object’s motion  equals mass times velocity P = m * v  Law of conservation of momentum  Momentum can neither be created nor destroyed, it just changes forms  Momentum of a system before a collision is the same as the momentum of a system after the collision http://physics.uwstout.edu/physapplets/a-city/physengl/newtonscradle.htm http://physics.uwstout.edu/physapplets/a-city/physengl/newtonscradle.htm

89. Momentum A moving object has a property called momentum that is related to how much force is needed to change its motion. The momentum of an object is the product of its mass and velocity.

90. Momentum Momentum is given the symbol p and can be calculated with the following equation: momentum = mass x velocity P = mv The unit for momentum is kg · m/s. Notice that momentum has a direction because velocity has a direction.

91. Force and Changing Momentum Recall that acceleration is the difference between the initial and final velocity, divided by the time. Also, from Newton’s second law, the net force on an object equals its mass times its acceleration.

92. Force and Changing Momentum By combining these two relationships, Newton’s second law can be written in this way: In this equation mv f is the final momentum and mv i is the initial momentum.

93. Law of Conservation of Momentum The momentum of an object doesn’t change unless its mass, velocity, or both change. Momentum, however, can be transferred from one object to another. The law of conservation of momentum states that if a group of objects exerts forces only on each other, their total momentum doesn’t change.

94. When Objects Collide The results of a collision depend on the momentum of each object. When the first puck hits the second puck from behind, it gives the second puck momentum in the same direction.

95. When Objects Collide If the pucks are speeding toward each other with the same speed, the total momentum is zero.

96. 3.3 Section Check Question 1 According to Newton’s law, the second object exerts a force on the first that is equal in strength and opposite in direction. According to Newton’s third law of motion, what happens when one object exerts a force on a second object? Answer

97. 3.3 Section Check Question 2 A. mass, acceleration B. mass, velocity C. mass, weight D. net force, velocity The momentum of an object is the product of its __________ and __________.

98. 3.3 Section Check Answer The correct answer is B. An object’s momentum is the product of its mass and velocity, and is given the symbol p.

99. 3.3 Section Check Question 3 When two objects collide, what happens to their momentum?

100. 3.3 Section Check Answer According to the law of conservation of momentum, if the objects in a collision exert forces only on each other, their total momentum doesn’t change, even when momentum is transferred from one object to another.