1. Chapter 5 Learning

2. What is Learning?  A relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience  Learning is adaptive  Three major types of learning: Classical conditioning Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Operant conditioning Cognitive learning Cognitive learning

3. Module 5.1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association

4. Module 5.1 Preview Questions  What is learning?  What is classical conditioning?  What roles do extinction and spontaneous recovery play in classical conditioning?  What roles do stimulus generalization and discrimination play in classical conditioning?  What stimulus characteristics strengthen conditioned responses?

5. Module 5.1 Preview Questions (Cont’d)  What is a cognitive perspective on classical conditioning?  What are some examples of classical conditioning in humans?

6. Classical Conditioning  Discovered by a Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936)  Learning by association  Learned through experiences

7. Classical Conditioning  A form of behavioral learning in which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the power to elicit the same innate reflex produced by another stimulus

8. Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery  Extinction: the gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a CR  Spontaneous Recovery: the spontaneous return of a CR following extinction  Reconditioning: the process of relearning a CR after extinction

9. Generalization and Discrimination  Stimulus Generalization: tendency of stimuli similar to the CS to elicit the CR One explanation for feelings of déjà-vu One explanation for feelings of déjà-vu  Stimulus Discrimination: the ability to differentiate among related stimuli

10. Stimulus Characteristics that Strengthen Conditioned Responses  Frequency of pairings – the more the CS is paired with the US  Timing – when the CS is first and remains present with the US  Intensity of US – a stronger US

11. Why it Matters: Examples of Classical Conditioning  Conditioned emotional reactions (CER) Watson and Rayner’s Little Albert experiment Watson and Rayner’s Little Albert experiment Watson and Rayner’s Little Albert experiment Watson and Rayner’s Little Albert experiment  Phobias  Positive emotions  Drug cravings  Conditioned taste aversions  Immune system changes Continue

12. Module 5.2 Operant Conditioning: Learning Through Consequences

13. Module 5.2 Preview Questions  What is Thorndike’s Law of Effect?  What is operant conditioning?  What are the different types of reinforcers?  What are schedules of reinforcement and how are they related to learning?

14. Module 5.2 Preview Questions (Cont’d)  What is escape learning and avoidance learning?  What is punishment, and why are psychologists concerned about its use?  What are some applications of operant conditioning?

15. Classical vs. Operant Conditioning  Classical Conditioning: learning results from the association between stimuli before a response occurs  Operant Conditioning: learning results from the association of a response with its consequences

16. Operant Conditioning  A form of behavioral learning in which the patterns of rewards, punishments, & other consequences encourage or discourage the behaviors they follow  Nonreflexive act- any behavior or event that operates on environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli  Subject more likely to repeat rewarded behaviors and not repeat punished behaviors

17. Thorndike and the Law of Effect  The tendency of a response to occur depends on the effects it has on the environment  Responses that have satisfying effects are strengthened and more likely to occur again Reinforcement Reinforcement  Responses that lead to discomfort are weakened and less likely to occur again Punishment Punishment

18. B. F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning  Skinner believed in radical behaviorism Behavior is completely determined by environment and genetics Behavior is completely determined by environment and genetics Free will is an illusion or a myth Free will is an illusion or a myth  Organisms learn responses that operate on the environment to produce consequences “Operant conditioning” or “instrumental learning” “Operant conditioning” or “instrumental learning”

19. Discriminative Stimuli & Shaping  Discriminative Stimulus: a cue that signals reinforcement is available if a particular response is made  Shaping: application of the method of successive approximations  Reinforce responses that are closer and closer to correct response

20. Extinction  Process by which responses are weakened and eventually eliminated  Occurs when the response is repeatedly performed but is no longer reinforced

21. Schedules of Reinforcement  When is reinforcement delivered?  Continuous Reinforcement: every response is reinforced  Partial Reinforcement: only a portion of the responses is reinforced Ratio schedules: fixed or variable (number) Ratio schedules: fixed or variable (number) Interval schedules: fixed or variable (timing) Interval schedules: fixed or variable (timing)

22. Escape and Avoidance Learning  Escape Learning: escape an aversive stimulus by performing an operant response  Avoidance Learning: avoid an aversive stimulus by performing an operant response

23. Punishment  Consequence that weakens or suppresses a response Removal of a reinforcing stimulus Removal of a reinforcing stimulus Introduction of an aversive stimulus Introduction of an aversive stimulus

24. Punishment vs. Negative Reinforcement  Punishment Introduces an aversive stimulus Introduces an aversive stimulus Weakens a behavior Weakens a behavior  Negative reinforcement Removes an aversive stimulus Removes an aversive stimulus Strengthens a behavior Strengthens a behavior

25. Drawbacks of Punishment  May suppress undesirable behavior, but does not eliminate it  Does not teach new behaviors  Can have undesirable consequences  May become abusive  May represent a form of inappropriate modeling

26. Why it Matters: Applications of Operant Conditioning  Biofeedback training  Behavior modification Token economy program Token economy program  Programmed instruction Computer-assisted instruction Computer-assisted instruction

27. Module 5.3 Cognitive Learning

28. Module 5.3 Preview Questions  What is cognitive learning?  What is insight learning?  What is latent learning?  What is observational learning?

29. Cognitive Learning  Involves mental processes that cannot be directly observed (thinking, information processing, problem solving, and mental imaging)  Premise is that we are capable of new behaviors without actually having had the chance to perform them or being reinforced for them

30. Insight Learning  Wolfgang Köhler’s (1927) experiment with Sultan the chimp  Insight Learning: process of mentally working through a problem until the sudden realization of a solution occurs The “Aha!” phenomenon The “Aha!” phenomenon  Requires restructuring or reorganizing the problem in one’s mind to form a solution

31. Latent Learning  “Hidden” learning occurs without reinforcement Learned behavior displayed only when reinforced Learned behavior displayed only when reinforced  Tolman: The rats had developed a cognitive map of the maze. Mental representation of maze Mental representation of maze

32. Observational Learning  Acquire new behaviors by imitating behaviors observed in others Also called vicarious learning or modeling Also called vicarious learning or modeling  Allows us to become capable of behaviors even before have chance to do the behaviors ourselves

33. Observational Learning (Cont’d)  Albert Bandura: Children learn to imitate aggressive behavior “Bobo doll” studies “Bobo doll” studies  Influence of modeling generally stronger when: Model is similar to the learner Model is similar to the learner Positive reinforcement for performing the behavior is evident Positive reinforcement for performing the behavior is evident

34. Application: Module 5.4 Putting Reinforcement into Practice

35. Modifying Behavior  Important to establish a clear contingency or connection between the desired behavior and the reinforcement  Contingency contracting involves an exchange of desirable reinforcers

36. Applying Reinforcement  Be specific.  Use specific language.  Select a reinforcer.  Explain the contingency.  Apply the reinforcer.  Track frequency of the desired behavior.  Wean the child from the reinforcer.

37. Giving Praise  Connect and make eye contact with the child and smile while giving praise.  Use hugs.  Be specific.  Avoid empty flattery.  Reward the effort, not the outcome.  Avoid repeating yourself.  Don’t end on a sour note.

38. Thank you Have a nice day!