1. Integrating Ethics into Graduate Training in the Environment Sciences Series Unit 5: Implementing Sustainable Development Programs AUTHOR: DONALD BROWN Program in Science, Technology, and Society The Pennsylvania State University With input from Nancy Tuana, Ken Davis, Klaus Keller, Jim Shortle, Michelle Stickler, and Erich Schienke

2. Sustainable Development “Sustainable development” was originally defined as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (The Brundtland Commission, 1987)

3. Sustainable Development-Why is it necessary? Environmental problems limit development options, development options can create environmental problems, some environmental problems will not be solved without economic development, and environmental decisions can create social inequity. Therefore, the core idea of sustainable development is that environmental, economic, and equity problems are interrelated and therefore their solutions must be integrated Environment Economy Equity

4. Some Criticisms of Sustainable Development Some environmental activists are suspicious –because economic development is one of the objectives, it will lead to meaningless or weak environmental solutions, that is, economics will trump environmental protection concerns. Some business leaders are suspicious –because it could be another way of imposing environmental constraints on development Some environmental scientists are skeptical –because it is an ambiguous term that has no clear definition Some philosophers are critical –Because it could be an idea that leads to human interests trumping environmental concerns

5. Ethics and Sustainable Development However, one does not necessarily need to see sustainable development as an idea that calls for human interests to trump duties to protect interests of plants, animals, it should be seen as an incomplete ethical rule that must be guided by other ethical considerations. That is, sustainable development should be understood to be a concept that “points to” or “orients” thinking without providing the final rules about how conflicts will be resolved. The law is full of such “orienting concepts” including “equity” and “justice” that must be worked out through appeal to other ethical concepts in specific cases.

6. What does ethics say about the balancing of environmental, economic, and social concerns? Ethics - the domain of inquiry that examines statements about what is bad or good, obligatory or non-obligatory, or when duties attach to human actions. Different ethical theories: –Anthropocentric –Utilitarian and other consequentialist –Rights Based or other duty based –Relationship based ethics –Virtue –Distributive and other theories of justice –Non-anthropocentric –Biocentric –Ecocentric –Religious duties

7. How does ethics differ from science and economics? It is often assumed (wrongly in some cases) that science and economics are disciplines that define “value-neutral” “facts” of or “descriptions” of the way the world works. Science and economics are therefore sometimes understood to be descriptive, not prescriptive discourses. Ethics is understood to be the domain that looks at “prescriptive” claims about what one should do given the “facts”.

8. At least two different roles for environmental science In basic research where the scientific method is designed to lead to better approximations of the truth through falsification of the null hypothesis. In these matters insisting on high levels of proof makes sense; The application of science to public policy often must contend with issues of scientific uncertainty because of complexity of ecological systems and environment-human health interactions, theoretical uncertainty about environmental impacts, or uncertainty driven by practical considerations including time, money, or data limits.

9. Prescriptive Issues are Sometimes Hidden in Science When Science is Used in Public Policy. When uncertain science is applied to public policy, ethical issues arise that include: –Burden of proof? –Quantity of proof ? ((95% confidence, balance of evidence, reasonable risk??) –Consent of victims to risk? –Should the decision consider low probability, catastrophic or irreversible effects? –Numerous assumptions in risk assessment? –Subjective versus empirical probabilities? –How to deal with unknown, unknowns particularly thresholds in ecological systems

10. Prescriptive Issues Sometimes Hidden in Economics analysis applied to public policy (Welfare Maximizing Analyses) Should harms and benefits be aggregated? Who is to say? Should future benefits be discounted? If so, what discount rate should be applied? Should all values be reduced to quantified market values? How to deal with uncertainty of economic impacts? Do human rights trump utility? Who should decide to use preference utility?

11. A particular challenge of sustainable development- “equity” the third leg of the stool Equity Economics Environment Integrating “equity” into sustainable development is often ignored. Equity considerations raises important issues, including global North-South issues at the global scale, and environmental justice issues at local scale.

12. Equity Considerations that arise in sustainable development decisions Equity (the third leg of the sustainability stool) frequently raises several issues- –Procedural justice-Do those who may be affected by a decision have a right to participate? –Substantive fairness - Poor people should not bear unfair burden of sustainable development-taxes, for instance, decisions should not unfairly burden poor, those who cause problems should be responsible for remedy, and burdens and benefits of decisions should be spread fairly. –Intergenerational Equity- Weak Sustainability-Similar ability to generate wealth between generations Strong Sustainability-Undiminished natural resources

13. Examples of Important Equity Issues in Sustainable Development Who gets to use the atmosphere as a sink for GHG emissions? Should poor people that are displaced by economic development be compensated? Should the “polluter-pays principle” be applied? Should the most risky projects be placed in poor neighborhoods? If so, do poor people have a right to consent to being put at risk?

14. Important Equity Issues in Sustainable Development Should the rich countries transfer technologies to poor? Should indigenous knowledge be treated as a property right? Should poor countries be expected to meet minimum environmental standards?

15. To integrate ethics into sustainable development-we need “applied ethics” Ethicists must work with scientists, economists, to determine factual issues. –Good ethics is sensitive to factual context. It does little good to talk about ethics in the abstract. Scientists and economists must acknowledge that the tools they rely on sometimes raise ethical questions. –Can’t assume that ethics is something to be done after analyses are complete.