1. 1 Nativelikeness Bolormaa B. English Language & Methodology Department, MSUE October 6, 2011

2. 2 Introduction Complete success second language learner’s ultimate attainment of a native like proficiency Nativelikeness being identical to a native speaker Near-nativeness levels of nonnativeness that are nonperceivable in normal, everyday language use (Abrahamsson et al., 2009)

3. 3 Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) There is a set time period (‘critical period’) during which L2 learning takes place naturally and effortlessly. Only learners who begin to learn the L2 during this set period are completely successful. (Long, 1990) Age of onset: that time period begins Age span: 0-6 and 6-12

4. 4 Different views on nativelikeness Any learner, regardless of age of acquisition, can attain nativelike levels of second language (L2) proficiency. –approximately 5% of all adult learners can attain “absolute success” despite a late age of onset of acquisition. (Selinker, 1972) –A much larger number (10-15%) of adult learners reach nativelike levels (Birdsong, 1999, 2005; Seliger, Krashen, & Ladefoged, 1975)

5. 5 The attainment of nativelike proficiency, in principle, is impossible. - Entirely nativelike adult L2 learners do not exist at all. (Bley-Vroman, 1989) - Absolute nativelikeness in late learners does not occur. ( Abrahamsson & Hyltenstam, 2009)

6. Concept of “nativelikeness” Interpretation 1: to self-identify as a nativelike speaker of the target language (e.g., Piller, 2002; Seliger, 1978; Seliger et al., 1975) Interpretation 2: to be perceived as a nativelike speaker by native speakers of the target language (e.g., Bongaerts, 1999; Moyer, 1999; Neufeld, 2001) Interpretation 3: to be a nativelike speaker of the target language (e.g., Birdsong, 1999; Bley- Vroman, 1989; Long, 1990) 6

7. Current research In the research, interpretation 3 of nativelikeness—that is, the extent to which L2 learners exist who are nativelike in their language competence and behavior (see, e.g., Abrahamsson & Hyltenstam, 2008; Abrahamsson et al., in press; Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson, 2003a). 7

8. Research questions The questions that guided the study were the following: (a) Do late (i.e., adolescent and adult) L2 learners exist who are perceived as native speakers? (Part I); (b) Are most early (i.e., child) L2 learners ultimately perceived as native speakers? (Part I); (c) Do late (i.e., adolescent and adult) L2 learners exist who are nativelike when scrutinized in detail? (Part II); and (d) Are most early (i.e., child) L2 learners ultimately nativelike when scrutinized in detail? (Part II). 8

9. 9 Research Abrahamsson & Hyltenstam, 2009 Study Participants (n=195) - very advanced Spanish learners of Swedish - Age of Onset < 1-47 years - minimum 10 years residence in Sweden Test: Two parts - listening session and - in-depth linguistic scrutiny of 20 instruments

10. Parts 195 L2 speakers of Swedish (132 females and 63 males) in Part I (Sep 2002- Mar 2004) -107 participant AO of Swedish <12 years -88 participant AO ≥ 12 41 participants (n=41) in Part II of the study -a subset of 31 childhood learners (AO 1–11 years) -10 adolescent and adult learners (AO 13–19 years) who had passed for native speakers with at least 6 of the 10 judges in Part I were selected for a broad and detailed scrutiny of actual (linguistic) nativelikeness. 10

11. Part I 10 judges had three alternatives: (A) This person’s mother tongue is Swedish and he/she is native to the Stockholm area (B) This person’s mother tongue is Swedish but he/she is not native to the Stockholm area (C) This person’s mother tongue is not Swedish 11

12. Participant AOs 195 L2 participants divided into five smaller AO groups for (n=195) (i)early childhood (AO≤5 years, n=53) (ii)late childhood (AO6–11 years, n = 54) (iii) adolescence (AO 12–17 years, n = 31) (iv) early adulthood (AO 18–23years,n = 33) (v)later adulthood (AO ≥ 24 years, n = 24) 12

13. Perceived Nativelikeness 6-year intervals partially motivated by general phases in language development What the two lower AO groups (i.e., early childhood and late childhood) have in common is that a majority of the participants are perceived as mother-tongue speakers of Swedish by most of the judges; 13

14. 14 Findings - a majority of the early learners and a few of the late learners perceived as mother-tongue speakers of Swedish -A few of the early learners (n=3) and none of the late learners exhibited actual, linguistic nativelikeness -AOs were 3, 7, and 8 years.

15. 15 Conclusion The absolute nativelikeness in late learners, in principle, does not occur. Selinker’s (1972) 5% estimate is questionable and should treat other existing rates of nativelikeness with caution and even skepticism.

16. 16 Future research Research on nativelikeness and advanced learners’ L2 ultimate attainment (regardless of AO of acquisition) needs to employ highly demanding tasks and tests evaluate the full range of learners’ L2 proficiency search subtle differences between native-speaker and near-native speaker competence

17. 17 References Abrahamsson, N. & Hyltenstam, K. (2009). Age of onset and nativelikeness in a second language: listener perception versus linguistic scrutiny. Language Learning, 59, 249-306. Birdsong, D. (2005). Nativelikeness and non-nativelikeness in L2A research. IRAL, 43, 319-328. Coppieters, R. (1987). Competence differences between natives and near-native speakers. Language, 63, 544-673. DeKeyser, M.R. (2000). The robustness of critical period effects in second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 22, 499-533. Ellis, R. (2000). Second language acquisition. Oxford. Oxford University Press. Hyltenstam, K. & Abrahamsson, N. (2003). Maturational constraints in SLA. In C.J. Doughty & M.H. Long(Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp539-588). Oxford: Blackwell. Long, M.H. (1990). Maturational constraints on language development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 12, 251-285.

18. 18 THANK YOU!