1. Chapter 11: Biodiversity Conservation

2. 11.1 What Is Biodiversity? Biodiversity Variety of life in all forms, combinations, and organization –Landscape biodiversity (ecological) –Community biodiversity (species) –Population biodiversity (genetic)

3. BIODIVERSITY Biodiversity - Variety of living things. –Genetic Diversity - Measures variety of different versions of same genes. –Species Diversity - Measures number of different kinds of organisms within a community. –Ecological Diversity - Measures richness and complexity of a community.

4. 11.1 What Is Biodiversity? Landscape biodiversity –Variety and abundance of species from place to place Pattern driven by two factors –Gradual change in environmental factors Temperature Growing seasons Water availability –History of local disturbance Fire/flood cycles

5. 11.1 What Is Biodiversity? Community biodiversity Number of species, their relative abundance and arrangement in space –Species richness Total number of species in an area –Species evenness Relative abundance of the species in a community Structural complexity Three-dimensional distribution of species and biological features

6. 11.1 What Is Biodiversity? Population biodiversity –Measured by genetic diversity Genetic variation among individuals –Outbreeding Mating with nonrelated individuals Maximizes diversity –Inbreeding Mating between closely related individuals Increases chance of genetic disease and reproductive failure

7. How Many Species Currently 1.7 million species identified. Estimates range between 3-50 million.  May be 30 million insect species.  Invertebrates make up 70% of all known species, and probably most of yet to be discovered species. Tropical rainforests and coral reefs are biodiversity hotspots.  North America and Europe only contain 10-15%.

8. 11.2 Why Biodiversity Matters Importance of biodiversity –Helps ecosystems respond to disturbance/change –Provides humans with many ecosystem services –Improves production of goods Food Fuel Fiber Medicine

9. BENEFITS OF BIODIVERSITY Food  As many as 80,000 edible wild plant species could be utilized by humans. Drugs and Medicines  More than half of all prescriptions contain some natural product.  Pharmaceutical products derived from developing world, plants, animals, and microbes to be more than $30 billion/year.

10. BENEFITS OF BIODIVERSITY CONT’D Ecological Benefits  Soil formation, waste disposal, air and water purification, nutrient cycling, solar energy absorption, and food production and hydrological cycles all depend on biodiversity. - At least $33 Trillion annual benefit.  Can a system function without all its integral parts?

11. BENEFITS OF BIODIVERSITY CONT’D Aesthetic and Cultural Benefits  Cultural diversity inextricably linked to biodiversity.  USFWS estimates Americans spend $104 billion annually on wildlife-related recreation.  Ecotourism can be an important form of sustainable economic development.  Existence (intrinsic) value.

12. 11.2 Why Biodiversity Matters Ecosystem function and service –Depends on individual species and interactions –Species vary with regard to importance Example: Producers more abundant –Complementarity effect Resources used by various species in a complementary fashion More efficient

13. 11.2 Why Biodiversity Matters Ecosystem stability –Biodiversity enables ecosystem to resist/recover from changes or disturbance Diverse ecosystems have many species with varying tolerances –Enhances ecosystem ability to survive disturbance or change

14. 11.2 Why Biodiversity Matters Economic value Biodiversity provides essential goods and services –Food –Fiber –Ecotourism –Medicine –Biotechnology

15. 11.2 Why Biodiversity Matters Existence value –Intrinsic value of plants and animals –Religious beliefs –Ethics United Nations Charter for Nature –"Every form of life is unique, warranting respect..."

16. 11.3 Global Patterns of Biodiversity Earth supports 7–15 million species of eukaryotes Only 10–20% have been described –Terrestrial Over 80% animals, most insects –Marine Almost 50% algae

17. 11.3 Global Patterns of Biodiversity Species richness –Generally, number of species in biomes decreases with distance from equator Global pattern based on 4 factors –Net primary production –Past disturbance –Habitat gradients –Ecosystems complexity

18. 11.3 Global Patterns of Biodiversity Biodiversity hotspots –Large number of endemic species –Human actions threaten habitats Conservation International –Uses biodiversity hotspots to prioritize activities –Defines hotspots as area having at least 1,500 endemic species with at least 70% of original area altered by humans

19. 11.4 Differences in Biodiversity among Communities Biodiversity varies among ecological communities Enhanced by differences –Habitat diversity –Species interactions –Disturbance –Immigration/extinction

20. 11.4 Differences in Biodiversity among Communities Habitat diversity –Greater habitat diversity supports more species –Varying topography creates differing habitats Mountains, rivers, valleys –Habitat complexity supports more niches Greater species diversity

21. 11.4 Differences in Biodiversity among Communities Species interactions –Competition and predation influence biodiversity Predators –Prey species cannot become dominant to exclude competitors Herbivores –Drive adaptation and increases diversity of plants

22. 11.4 Differences in Biodiversity among Communities Disturbance –Biodiversity peaks at intermediate level of disturbance –Disturbance acts like an herbivore Prevents any one species from dominating Fire Flood Hurricanes

23. 11.4 Differences in Biodiversity among Communities Local immigration and extinction rates –Species richness affected by both Equilibrium theory of island biogeography –R.H. MacArthur and E.O. Wilson –Species diversity on islands determined by 2 factors Rate of new species migration Rate of species disappearing from island Certain habitats act as islands

24. THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY Extinction - Elimination of a species.  Normal Process - In undisturbed ecosystems, background rate appears to be one species per decade.  In this century, human impacts have accelerated that rate, causing perhaps hundreds to thousands of extinctions annually.

25. Natural Causes of Extinction Fossil record suggests more than 99% of all species ever in existence are now extinct.  Most went extinct before humans arrived. - End of Cretaceous period - Dinosaurs and 50% of existing genera disappeared. - Permian period - Two-thirds of all marine species and nearly half of all plant and animal families died out.

26. Human-Caused Reductions in Biodiversity Habitat Destruction  Biggest reason for current increase in extinction is habitat loss. - Habitat fragmentation divides populations into isolated groups vulnerable to catastrophic events.  Island Biogeography  Species diversity is a balance between colonization and extinction.

27. Habitat Fragmentation - Cadiz Township, WI

28. Human-Caused Reductions in Biodiversity Cont’d Hunting and Fishing  Overharvesting of game species. - American Passenger Pigeon - American Bison - Whales - Atlantic Cod

29. Human-Caused Reductions in Biodiversity Cont’d Commercial Products and Live Specimens  Wildlife smuggling is very profitable. - 50 deaths for every live arrival at market.  U.S. Annual pet trade in wild species:  2 million reptiles  1 million amphibians and mammals  500,000 birds  128 million tropical fish - often caught with cyanide above coral reefs.

30. Endangered Species Parts

31. Predator and Pest Control Many animal populations have been greatly reduced or exterminated because they are regarded as dangerous to humans or livestock.  Animal control costs $20 million in federal and state funds annually. - 700,000 birds and mammals annually.  100,000 coyotes

32. Predator and Pest Control Cont’d Exotic Species Introductions  Exotic organisms - Organisms introduced into habitats where they are not native. - Biological Pollution  Kudzu Vine  Leafy Spurge  Purple Loosestrife  Zebra Mussels  Asian Long-Horned Beetles

33. Predator and Pest Control Cont’d Diseases  When a disease is introduced into a new environment, natural balance may be tipped, leading to an epidemic. - Chestnut Blight, Whirling Disease Pollution  Toxic Pollutants - Pesticides, Lead, DDT Genetic Assimilation

34. 11.5 Threats to Biodiversity Human activities increasing extinction rate –Habitat loss/destruction –Habitat fragmentation –Overharvesting –Non-native invasive species –Pollution –Altered patterns of disturbance –Climate change

35. About 200 years ago, the American passenger pigeon was probably the world's most abundant bird. Population: 3-5 billion Over hunting and habitat destruction caused its extinction.

36. 11.5 Threats to Biodiversity Habitat loss –Single greatest threat to biodiversity 82% of endangered bird species from habitat loss Logging, agriculture, and development –95% of North American deciduous forest lost/altered –3% of U.S. mixed and tall grass prairie remain

37. 11.5 Threats to Biodiversity Habitat fragmentation –Habitats are divided into small disconnected habitats Roads Developments Dams –Many behave as islands –Reduces or eliminates movement or dispersal –Reduces gene flow

38. 11.5 Threats to Biodiversity Overharvesting –Human consumption reduces population Food, industry, pet trade –When harvested faster than can reproduce, species population will crash –Certain species vulnerable Slow population growth rates Flocking/schooling behavior Large bodied

39. Trade in Wildlife About 75% of all saltwater tropical aquarium fish sold come from coral reefs of the Philippines and Indonesia, where they are commonly caught with dynamite or cyanide.

40. 11.5 Threats to Biodiversity Non-native invasive species –Population explodes and outcompetes/displaces natives Lack of predators/pathogens Lack of competitors Own adaptations May disrupt food web or species composition

41. Introduced Species If introduced species prey upon, or compete more successfully than, native populations, the nature of the community may be altered –Human history littered with examples of introducing exotic species to solve problems caused by previous introductions Mongoose and Rats in Caribbean

42. Cane Toad

43. 11.5 Threats to Biodiversity Pollution –Air and water pollution remove species –Pollutants may build up through food web Altered patterns of disturbance –Changes of frequency and intensity Floods Fire –Changes species composition

44. 11.5 Threats to Biodiversity Climate change –Shifting weather patterns alter or eliminate habitat Disappearing sea ice –Polar bear habitat –Warmer seas Coral bleaching

45. Protecting Biodiversity Hunting and fishing laws The Endangered Species Act (ESA) Recovery plans Reintroductions Minimum viable population Private land and critical habitat Reauthorization of the ESA International wildlife treaties

46. 11.6 Strategies for Conserving Biodiversity Effective conservation of diversity requires multiple strategies –Preserves and protected areas Health of individual species population Management of habitat –Maximizing migration –Maintaining cycles –Mitigating human influence

47. 11.6 Strategies for Conserving Biodiversity Preserves and protected areas Behave as islands Depend on principles of island biogeography –Size Larger preserves support more species –Connectivity Migration corridors –Distance from other preserves –Buffers Protect from human influence/disturbance

48. 11.6 Strategies for Conserving Biodiversity Managing populations of individual species –Requires restoration and maintenance of healthy populations Population viability –Probability of extinction in a given number of years Affected by several factors –Availability and quality of habitat –Size of population –Disease/predators Umbrella species –Species whose protection protects other species that require similar habitat

49. 11.7 U.S. Policies for Conserving Biodiversity National parks and wilderness areas –Park system set high standard for managing biodiversity –Established for protection of habitat and preservation for human use Parks protect sensitive habitat Some suffer from overuse/visitation

50. BIODIVERSITY PROTECTION Hunting and Fishing Laws  By 1890’s, most states had enacted some hunting and fishing laws. - General idea was pragmatic, not aesthetic or moral preservation.  White-tailed deer  Wild turkeys  Wood ducks

51. 11.7 U.S. Policies for Conserving Biodiversity Legislation to protect species –U.S. laws limit commerce and injury to threatened and endangered species 1900 Lacey Act –Prohibits trade in wildlife, fish, or plants taken illegally U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service –Created to enforce Lacey Act –Endangered Species Act Prohibits taking of endangered or threatened species regardless of landownership.

52. Endangered Species Act Established in 1973.  Endangered are those considered in imminent danger of extinction.  Threatened are those likely to become endangered, at least locally, in the near future. - Vulnerable are those that are naturally rare or have been locally depleted to a level that puts them at risk.

53. Endangered Species Act Cont’d ESA regulates a wide range of activities involving Endangered Species:  Taking (harassing, harming, pursuing, hunting, shooting, killing, capturing, or collecting) either accidentally, or on purpose.  Selling  Importing into or Exporting out of the U.S.  Possessing  Transporting or Shipping

54. Endangered Species Act Cont’d Currently, the U.S. has 1,300 species on its endangered and threatened lists, and 250 candidate species waiting for consideration.  Number reflects more about human interests than actual status. - Invertebrates make up 75% of all species, but only 9% worthy of protection.  Listing process is extremely slow.

55. Recovery Plans Once a species is listed, USFWS is required to propose a recovery plan detailing the rebuilding of the species to sustainable levels.  Total cost of all current plans = $5 billion. Opponents have continually tried to require economic costs and benefits be incorporated into planning.

56. Minimum Viable Populations Minimum Viable Population is the minimum population size required for long-term viability of a species.

57. Minimum Viable Populations Cont’d Diversity Loss in Small Populations:  Founder Effect - Few individuals start a new population.  Demographic Bottleneck - Few individuals survive catastrophe.  Genetic Drift - Random reduction in gene frequency.  Inbreeding - Mating between related individuals.

58. Private Land and Critical Habitat Private land is essential in endangered species protection.  Eighty percent of habitat for more than half of all listed species is on nonpublic property. Habitat Conservation Plans (HCP)  Landowners are allowed to harvest resources or build on part of their land as long as the species benefits overall.

59. Reauthorizing ESA ESA officially expired in 1992.  Proposals for new ESA generally fall into two general categories: - Versions that encourage ecosystem and habitat protection rather than individual species. - Safe Harbor policies that allow exceptions to critical habitat designations.  (Economic Considerations)

61. 11.8 International Policies for Conserving Biodiversity Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora –Known as CITES –Has slowed the overhunting and collection of many plants and animals –Effectiveness debatable Black market –Other international treaties International Convention on the regulation of whaling

62. 11.8 International Policies for Conserving Biodiversity Economic incentives for conservation –Many hotspots in poor developing nations –Ecotourism –Debt-for-nature swaps International debt forgiven for creation of preserves and parks