1. Use with Atkinson & Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology 15 th edition Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, Loftus, Wagenaar ISBN 9781844807284 © 2009 Cengage Learning Chapter 14 Stress, Health, and Coping

2. Use with Atkinson & Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology 15 th edition Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, Loftus, Wagenaar ISBN 9781844807284 © 2009 Cengage Learning Characteristics of Stressful Events Stress –Refers to experiencing events perceived as endangering one’s physical/psychological well-being Events – stressors & people’s reactions = stress responses Traumatic events –Extreme situations outside the range of usual human experience (e.g. natural disasters, wars etc.) Most never experience traumatic events, but four aspects of common events that lead to them being perceived as stressful include: controllability, predictability, major changes in life circumstances & internal conflicts

3. Use with Atkinson & Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology 15 th edition Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, Loftus, Wagenaar ISBN 9781844807284 © 2009 Cengage Learning Characteristics of Stressful Events Controllability –Degree to which we can stop event or bring it about –More uncontrollable event seems – more likely to perceive it as stressful Predictability –Degree to which we know if & when event will occur –Ability to predict occurrence of event reduces severity of stress

4. Use with Atkinson & Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology 15 th edition Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, Loftus, Wagenaar ISBN 9781844807284 © 2009 Cengage Learning Characteristics of Stressful Events Major changes in life circumstances –Any life change that requires numerous readjustments can be perceived as stressful –Negative events much greater impact on physical & psychological health than positive events Internal conflicts –Unresolved issues that may be either conscious or unconscious –Conflict occurs when person must choose between incompatible or mutually exclusive goals

5. Use with Atkinson & Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology 15 th edition Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, Loftus, Wagenaar ISBN 9781844807284 © 2009 Cengage Learning Psychological Reactions to Stress Anxiety –Is a common response to stress but in extreme circumstances can develop into post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Symptoms include – deep detachment, repeatedly reliving trauma, sleep disturbances/concentration problems & survivor guilt PTSD may develop immediately after the trauma or may be triggered by minor stress days, weeks, or years later

6. Use with Atkinson & Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology 15 th edition Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, Loftus, Wagenaar ISBN 9781844807284 © 2009 Cengage Learning Psychological Reactions to Stress...Anxiety –Cultural & sex differences in PTSD

7. Use with Atkinson & Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology 15 th edition Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, Loftus, Wagenaar ISBN 9781844807284 © 2009 Cengage Learning Psychological Reactions to Stress Anger & aggression –Another common response to stress is anger –Aggression not inevitable but often response to frustration Apathy & depression –Withdrawal & apathy also reactions to stress which may lead to depression – explained by learned helplessness Cognitive impairment –People often show substantial cognitive impairment when faced with serious stressors – two sources, high levels of emotional arousal & distracting thoughts

8. Use with Atkinson & Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology 15 th edition Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, Loftus, Wagenaar ISBN 9781844807284 © 2009 Cengage Learning Physiological Reactions to Stress The fight-or-flight response –Body prepares to attack/flee from threatening situation Figure 14.3 The Fight-or-Flight Response. A stressful situation activates the hypothalamus, which, in turn, controls two neuroendocrine systems: the sympathetic system (shown in orange) and the adrenal- cortical system (shown in green). The sympathetic nervous system, responding to neural impulses from the hypothalamus (1), activates various organs and smooth muscles under its control (2). For example, it increases heart rate and dilates the pupils. The sympathetic nervous system also signals the adrenal medulla (3) to release epinephrine and norepinephrine into the bloodstream (4). The adrenal-cortical system is activated when the hypothalamus secretes CRF, a chemical that acts on the pituitary gland, which lies just below the hypothalamus (5). The pituitary gland, in turn, secretes the hormone ACTH, which is carried via the bloodstream to the adrenal cortex (6), where it stimulates the release of a group of hormones, including cortisol, that regulate blood glucose levels (7). ACTH also signals the other endocrine glands to release some 30 hormones. The combined effects of the various stress hormones carried via the bloodstream plus the neural activity of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system constitute the fight-or-flight response.

9. Use with Atkinson & Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology 15 th edition Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, Loftus, Wagenaar ISBN 9781844807284 © 2009 Cengage Learning Physiological Reactions to Stress...The fight-or-flight response –Part of general adaptive syndrome – a set of responses displayed by all organisms in response to stress, characterised by alarm, resistance, & exhaustion The physiology of PTSD –People with PTSD more physiologically reactive to situations that remind them of trauma, e.g. changes in neurotransmitters & hormones involved in fight-or-flight response

10. Use with Atkinson & Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology 15 th edition Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, Loftus, Wagenaar ISBN 9781844807284 © 2009 Cengage Learning Physiological Reactions to Stress How stress affects health –Continued presence of stressor – body more vulnerable to illness Chronic stress lead to physical disorders, e.g. ulcers Psychophysiological disorders – physical disorders in which emotions play central role –Coronary heart disease (CHD) Overarousal caused by chronic stressors can contribute to CHD About third of risk for heart disease connected to stressfulness of people’s environments

11. Use with Atkinson & Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology 15 th edition Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, Loftus, Wagenaar ISBN 9781844807284 © 2009 Cengage Learning Physiological Reactions to Stress...How stress affects health The immune system Psychoneuroimmunology –studies how immune system affected by stress & other psychological factors Stress affects immune system’s ability to defend the body

12. Use with Atkinson & Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology 15 th edition Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, Loftus, Wagenaar ISBN 9781844807284 © 2009 Cengage Learning Physiological Reactions to Stress...How stress affects health –...The immune system One important factor appears to be the extent to which an individual can control stress Lower controllability = greater impact on immune system –Health-related behaviors Most of the diseases people die from in industrialized countries heavily influenced by health-related behaviors (e.g. smoking, drinking alcohol etc.) Stress may indirectly affect health by reducing rates of positive health-related behaviors & increasing rates of negative behaviors

13. Use with Atkinson & Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology 15 th edition Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, Loftus, Wagenaar ISBN 9781844807284 © 2009 Cengage Learning Psychological Factors & Stress Responses Psychoanalytic theory –Distinguishes between objective anxiety (reasonable response) & neurotic anxiety (out of proportion response) which stems from unconscious conflicts Behavioral theory –Individuals learn to associate stress responses with certain situations –People may react to certain situations with fear & anxiety because those situations caused them harm or were stressful in the past

14. Use with Atkinson & Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology 15 th edition Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, Loftus, Wagenaar ISBN 9781844807284 © 2009 Cengage Learning Psychological Factors & Stress Responses Cognitive theory –Optimistic attitude helps people respond better psychologically & physiologically to stress –Pessimists tend to appraise events as more stressful –Hardiness Defined as a characteristic where people do not become physically or emotionally impaired in face of stressful event Three components: commitment, control & challenge which are interrelated with the factors that influence perceived severity of stressors

15. Use with Atkinson & Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology 15 th edition Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, Loftus, Wagenaar ISBN 9781844807284 © 2009 Cengage Learning Psychological Factors & Stress Responses...Cognitive theory –Finding meaning People who find meaning in traumatic events show less depression & anxiety after the event than others Optimism & hardiness play a role in ability to find meaning The type A pattern –People who exhibit this behavior pattern Tend to be hostile, aggressive, impatient individuals who are over-involved with their work Are at increased risk of developing coronary heart disease – by increasing chronic arousal & indirectly by lowering social support

16. Use with Atkinson & Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology 15 th edition Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, Loftus, Wagenaar ISBN 9781844807284 © 2009 Cengage Learning Coping Skills Coping –Refers to the process by which a person attempts to manage stressful demands –Two major forms – problem-focused coping & emotion-focused coping Problem-focused coping –Firstly define the problem, then generate possible solutions & consider their costs & benefits –With this type of coping, it is less likely to experience depression either during or after stressful event

17. Use with Atkinson & Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology 15 th edition Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, Loftus, Wagenaar ISBN 9781844807284 © 2009 Cengage Learning Coping Skills Emotion-focused coping –People use emotion-focused coping to avoid their negative emotions from overwhelming them & preventing them from taking action to solve problems –To cope with negative emotions can use: Behavioral strategies, e.g. physical exercise, venting anger Cognitive strategies, e.g. temporarily setting problem aside Seeking emotional support from others good strategy to help people adjust emotionally & physically to stressor Maladaptive strategies of coping include avoidance & rumination which can lead to longer & more severe stress

18. Use with Atkinson & Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology 15 th edition Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, Loftus, Wagenaar ISBN 9781844807284 © 2009 Cengage Learning Coping Skills...Emotion-focused coping - Talking about emotions & issues in life appears to have positive effects on health

19. Use with Atkinson & Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology 15 th edition Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, Loftus, Wagenaar ISBN 9781844807284 © 2009 Cengage Learning Managing Stress Behavioral techniques –To help people control their physiological responses to stressful situations, can use behavioral techniques –Biofeedback In biofeedback training – people receive information about an aspect of their physiological state & then try to alter that state –Relaxation training Involves teaching people techniques to deeply relax their muscles and slow down and focus their thoughts Where biofeedback & relaxation training been used – most important variable is learning how to relax

20. Use with Atkinson & Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology 15 th edition Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, Loftus, Wagenaar ISBN 9781844807284 © 2009 Cengage Learning Managing Stress Exercise –Individuals who regularly engage in aerobic exercise show significantly lower heart rates & blood pressure in response to stressful situations than others –Physically fit people less likely to become physically ill following stressful events Cognitive techniques –Cognitive behavior therapy Attempts to help people identify kinds of stressful situations that produce physiological or emotional symptoms & alter the way they cope with these situations

21. Use with Atkinson & Hilgard’s Introduction to Psychology 15 th edition Nolen-Hoeksema, Fredrickson, Loftus, Wagenaar ISBN 9781844807284 © 2009 Cengage Learning Managing Stress...Cognitive techniques –Programs for stress management often use a combination of biofeedback, relaxation training, exercise & cognitive modification techniques Modifying type A behavior –Combination of cognitive & behavioral techniques been shown to reduce type A behavior which, in turn, results in reduced risk of coronary heart disease