1. 1.What field do the brain imaging technologies come from originally? 2.What does PET Stand for? 3.What is injected into the participant in PET? 4.What cognitive process did Davidson (2004) study? 5.What type of design was used by Davidson in his study? 6.What is one strength and one limitation of PET? 7.What does EEG stand for? 8.What does it measure? 9.What cognitive process did Hoffman et al. (2001) study? 10.What where Hoffman’s results? 11.What is one strength and one limitation of EEG? 12.What does fMRI stand for? 13.What does fMRI it measure? 14.What cognitive process did Kilts (2003) study using fMRI? 15.Give one strength and one limitation of the use of fMRI? 16.What might happen in future as technological advances continue to happen in the field of brain imaging technology? Quick Quiz: Brain Imaging Technologies

2. COGNITION & EMOTION IB Syllabus Says: Examine to what extent do biological and cognitive factors interact in emotion (Biological factors: LeDoux (1999) – Short and Long route theory) (Cognitive Factors: Lazarus (1975) Cognitive Appraisal Theory)

3. Cognition & Emotion Do you remember where you where when the attack happened on the twin towers? Your first day of school? You probably remember these events when others, no matter how significant, may be forgotten. Why do we clearly remember some events and forget others?

4. Cognition & Emotion The key appears that we remember better those experiences that involve emotions Emotions are rich and diverse, and they are often what makes the experience something special The famous brain researcher Antonio Damasio (1994) explains that emotions are purely physical signals of the body which react to external stimuli. Feelings arise when the brain interprets these emotions.

5. Emotions consist of three components : 1.Physiological changes, such as activation of the of the Hypothalamic ANS and HPAC pathways that are not conscious 2.The persons own subjective feeling of an emotion (e.g. happiness) 3.Associated behavior, such as smiling or running away (Damasio, 1994)

6. Cognition & Emotion According to brain researchers, emotions serve as a guide to evaluate how important situations are, and it is not necessarily a conscious process Cognitive psychologists like Lazarus (1975) have suggested that it is not the emotions as such that is important, but how people appraise the situation and cope with it. Cognitive appraisal is simply an interpretation of the physiological signals A perceived dangerous event (stressor) will result in a physiological response known as fight or flight, which prepares the individual for direct action to confront the danger or avoid it, and a Psychological cognitive appraisal of the arousal – that is a decision of what to do, based on previous experiences (hippocampus pays an important role)

7. Biological factors in emotions: The LONG and SHORT route to the stress response system The amygdala is a small structure in the limbic system that appears to be critical in the brains emotional circuits It is also believed to play a critical role in emotional memories (e.g. Clive Wearing’s amygdala remained intact) Studies of animals and humans indicate that the stress response system is activated (HPAC/ H-ANS- AM) when strong emotions are evoked

8. LeDoux (1999) TWO biological pathways of emotions in the brain Short Route Long Route thalamus Amygdala Stress response system (HPAC/ Hypo ANS - AM) thalamus Stress response system (HPAC/ Hypo ANS - AM) Amygdala Neocortex/ Hippocampus (appraisal) Stressor in the environment Stressor in the environment

9. In his book, The Emotional Brain LeDoux (1999) describes TWO biological pathways of emotions in the brain The first is the short route that goes from the thalamus (relay station between cortex and lower brain structures) straight to the amygdala (in the limbic system), before activating the stress response system The second is the long route goes from the thalamus via the neo cortex (higher brain centers) and the hippocampus (memory) before it results in an emotional response from the amygdala (this is the Cognitive factor – where appraisal takes place) The amygdala receives input from sensory processing area in the neo cortex and the thalamus, and projects these to areas in the Brainstem (Hypothalamic ANS Pathway) and the Hypothalamus (HPAC Pathway) It is the connection between the different brain structures that allows the amygdala to transform sensory information into emotional signals and initiate and control emotional responses Biological factors in emotions: The LONG and SHORT route to the stress response system

10. Thalamus/Amygdala Hypothalamus BrainstemPituitary gland Adrenal cortex Adrenal medulla Neural control via autonomic nervous system Corticosteroids In bloodstream ACTH in bloodstream Stressor The thick arrows show the hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal cortex (HPAC) Pathway The thin arrows show the hypothalamic-ANS-Adrenal medulla pathway (H-ANS- AM) CRH Hormone Metabolic effects on the body (higher heart rate & blood pressure to get oxygen to muscles) Activates The ANS sympathetic subdivision Via the brainstem Adrenaline and Noradrenaline in Bloodstream (increases heart Rate & blood pressure) Short Route- straight to Pathways Long Route -APPRAISAL via neo cortex/hippocampus

11. E.g. A woman is walking home, late in the evening. At the next corner, she sees a man waiting. She just read in the newspaper a story about a women being raped, so she is afraid and her heart begins to race. She walks slowly as to if to prepare for what may come. This is the physiological arousal, the fight or flight response which prepares for a reaction to a stressful experience. Biological factors in emotions: The LONG and SHORT route to the stress response system

12. When the women is just about to pass the man, he comes toward he saying, “excuse me, I am lost. Could you tell me where Linner Street is?”. The woman realizes she has misjudged the situation and relaxes/ she tells the man where the street is and continues walking calmly to her home. How can this be explained in terms of the short and long route?

13. 1.The emotional stimulus (a man who could be a potential aggressor) is first processed in the thalamus which sends a signal to the amygdala. 2.The perception of the potential stressor enables the amygdala to send signals to the body (HPAC/ Hypothalamic ANS pathways) so that it can prepare for action (SHORT DIRECT ROUTE ACTIVATED). 3.At the same time, the thalamus sends information via the indirect pathway to the neo cortex and hippocampus for closer inspection. (LONG – INDIRECT ROUTE ACTIVATED) 4.This results in a more detailed evaluation of the stimulus – an appraisal – and the outcome of this is sent to the amygdala 5.In the example above, the woman became aware that there is no danger, so she amygdala triggers relaxation (parasympathetic activation of the ANS pathway). *Most of these processes are non- conscious.*

14. According to LeDoux (1999), the advantage of having a direct and indirect pathways to the amygdala and the stress response system is flexibility in response. In the case of danger, the fast and direct pathway is useful because it saves time. This could be important in matters of life and death. On the other hand, the long pathway allows for a more thorough evaluation of a situation, which can help people and animals to avoid inappropriate responses to situations.

15. Reflection: Based on LeDoux’s (1999) theory of a ‘long and short route’ biological pathways of emotion in the brain, to what extent do biological factors interact in emotion? …………………………………………………… …………………………………………………… …………………………………………………… …………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………

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17. Biology and emotion: Questions to check your understanding: 1.According to Damasio emotions are ‘purely…..’ 2.What are the three components of emotion? 3.What is an appraisal? 4.What brain structures are involved in LeDoux’s long route biological emotional response? 5.What brain structures are involved in the short route of LeDoux’s biological emotional response? 6.What does the long pathway involve that the short pathway does not? 7.What is the advantage of having two pathways?

18. Cognitive factors in emotion: Appraisal According to Lazarus (1975) appraisals are evaluations related to how the situation will impact on ones personal well-being. Positive emotions emerge if the appraisal assess potential benefit Negative emotions emerge in the appraisal assess potential harm. Lazarus (1975) claimed that cognitive appraisal is an important part of peoples reaction to emotional stress and stressful experiences are not only physiological but also psychological

19. People are psychological beings who are not simply passively responding to the world, they actively interpret what is happening to them (a principle of the cog LOA) Lazarus (1975) suggested that an individuals experience of stress can be moderated by a number of factors, which include appraisal of threat and appraisal of ones own resources for dealing with the stressor. They are influence by personal characteristics such as motivation, beliefs about ones self and the world, and environmental variables such as the nature of the danger and the strength of ones social networks.

20. Lazarus (1975) found that people use different strategies in stressful situations. One of them the called problem focused coping, which aimed to change the problematic situation that causes emotional stress. They called the other emotion focused coping where the purpose is to handle the emotions rather than changing the problematic situation. Some of the methods used here are escape, self control over expression of emotions, seeking social support, or attempting to provide a positive reappraisal of the situation.

21. Research support for Lazarus (1975) Appraisal Theory: Speisman et al. (1964) laboratory experiment on the manipulation of emotional appraisal Aim: Investigate how appraisal can be manipulated, and how this influences the way people cope with emotional arousal. Procedure: Participants shown a film called “sub incision”. The film showed initiation ceremony involving unpleasant genital surgery – a right of passage for young adolescent boys in a primitive society. An independent measures design was used. This was done by showing the film with three different soundtracks. –In condition one, the ‘trauma’ condition, included a soundtrack which emphasized pain and mutilation. –In the second condition, the ‘denial’ condition, the soundtrack showed the participants willing and happy. –In condition three, the ‘intellectualization’ condition, the soundtrack gave the anthropological interpretation of the ceremony. The experiment deliberately manipulated the participants appraisal of the situation and evaluated the effect of the type of appraisal on their emotional response using a self report questionnaire, and also a heart rate monitor. Results: The results of self report questionnaires and heart rate monitoring showed that participants reacted more emotionally to the trauma condition (higher heart rate, and responses showing high emotional responses on the self report questionnaire). This shows that appraisal influences how people Maybe it is not the events themselves that illicit emotional stress, but rather the individual interpretation or appraisal of these events – this apprisal seems to influenced by the soundtrack played in the background. This could also be seen to as support to LeDoux’s theory of two biological pathways in the brain relating to emotion, as cognitive appraisal involves the hippocampus and neo cortex (the long route). Evaluation: You might ask if a study like this can say anything about real life. It was a laboratory study with the manipulation of variables which always raises the issue of artificiality. There were also ethical issues involved here, because the research deliberately used deception and put participants in unpleasant situation. In conclusion, cognitive seems to influence the emotional reaction, so this study could then illustrate how cognitive and biological factors interact with emotion.

22. Reflection: Based on Lazarus (1975) theory of a cognitive appraisal of emotion and the research support from Speisman et al. (1964) study to what extent do cognitive factors interact in emotion? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………

23. Cognition & Emotion: Questions to check your understanding: 1.According to Lazarus (1975) What is the difference between positive and negative appraisals? 2.How is appraisal both physiological and psychological? 3.What did Lazarus (1975) identify as factors can influence how we appraise a stressful situation? 4.what is the difference between the two different types of coping that Lazarus(1975) identified? 5.Give the aims, procedures, findings and conclusions of Speisman et al. (1964) study of manipulation of emotional appraisal 6.What was the IV and the DV in the study? 7.What type of design was used? 8.Identify and explain three ethical issues that are raised by Speisman et al. study. 9.Give two additional evaluative points that relate to Speisman et al.’s study